Philippa Kaur

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arising from Y. Wang et al. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04016-x (2021)A unique challenge for environmental DNA (eDNA)-based palaeoecological reconstructions and extinction estimates is that organisms can contribute DNA to sediments long after their death. Recently, Wang et al.1 discovered mammoth eDNA in sediments that are between approximately 4.6 and 7 thousand years (kyr) younger than the most recent mammoth fossils in North America and Eurasia, which they interpreted as mammoths surviving on both continents into the Middle Holocene epoch. Here we present an alternative explanation for these offsets: the slow decomposition of mammoth tissues on cold Arctic landscapes is responsible for the release of DNA into sediments for thousands of years after mammoths went extinct. eDNA records are important palaeobiological archives, but the mixing of undatable DNA from long-dead organisms into younger sediments complicates the interpretation of eDNA, particularly from cold and high-latitude systems.All animal tissues, including faeces, contribute DNA to eDNA records2, but the durations across which tissues can contribute genetic information must vary depending on tissue type and local rates of destruction and decomposition. On high-latitude landscapes, soft tissues and skeletal remains of large mammals may persist, unburied, for millennia3,4,5. For example, unburied antlers of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) from Svalbard (Norway) and Ellesmere Island (Canada) have been dated3,4 to between 1 and 2 cal kyr bp (calibrated kyr before present). Elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) remains near the Antarctic coastline5,6 can persist for more than 5,000 years. This is in contrast to bones in warmer settings, which persist for only centuries or decades7,8. Because bones are particularly resistant to decay, quantifying how their persistence changes across environments enables us to constrain the durations that dead individuals generally contribute to eDNA archives. To do this, we consolidated data on the oldest radiocarbon-dated surface-collected bones from different ecosystems. We included bones that we are reasonably confident persisted without being completely buried (‘never buried’), and bones for which exhumation cannot be confidently excluded (‘potentially never buried’). Pairing bone persistence with mean annual temperatures (MAT) from their sample localities, we find a strong link between the local temperature and the logged duration of bone persistence (Fig. 1, never buried bones: R2 = 0.94, P  More

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Rearing O. biroi pupae in social isolation and collecting pupal fluidIn O. biroi colonies, larvae and pupae develop in discrete and synchronized cohorts26. Ten days after the first larvae had entered pupation in a large stock colony, the entire colony was anaesthetized using a CO2 pad, and white pupae were separated using a paintbrush. Pupae were individually placed in 0.2 ml PCR tubes with open lid. These tubes were then placed inside 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubes with 5 µl sterile water at the bottom to provide 100% relative humidity. The outer tubes were closed and kept in a climate room at 25 °C. The inner tube in this design prevents the pupa from drowning in the water reservoir. The outer tubes were kept closed throughout the experiment, except for once a day when the tubes were opened to remove pupal social fluid. Pulled glass capillaries were prepared as described elsewhere29, and used to remove and/or collect secretion droplets. We were careful to leave no remains of the secretion behind on the pupae or the inside of the tubes. To ensure that all secretion had been removed, pupae were taken out of the tube after fluid collection and briefly placed on a tissue paper to absorb any excess liquid. The inner tubes were replaced if needed—for example, if fluid traces were visible on the old tube after collection. Each pupa was checked daily for secretion (absent or present), onset of melanization and eclosion, and whether the pupa was alive (responding to touch). Control groups of 30 pupae and 30 adult ants from the same stock colony and cohort as the isolated pupae were placed in Petri dishes with a plaster of Paris floor, and the same parameters as for the isolated pupae were scored daily. Experiments ended when all pupae had either eclosed or died. Newly eclosed (callow) workers moved freely inside the tube and showed no abnormalities when put in a colony. A pupa was declared dead if it did not shed its pupal skin and did not respond to touch three days after all pupae in the control group had eclosed.To calculate the average secretion volume per secreting pupa (Fig. 1d), the total volume collected daily from a group of isolated pupae (142–166 pupae) was divided by the number of pupae from which fluid had been collected that day. The total volume was determined by multiplying the height of the fluid’s meniscus in the capillary by πr², where r is the inner radius of the capillary (0.29 mm). While pupae were secreting, pupal whole-body wash samples were collected daily. The pupae were removed from colonies with adults and washed promptly with 1500 µl LC–MS grade water. Whole-body wash samples were lyophilized and reconstituted in 15 µl LC–MS grade water.Collecting additional ant species and honeybees, rearing pupae in social isolation, and collecting pupal fluidsColonies of the ants N. flavipes, T. sessile, P. pennsylvanica and Lasius neoniger were collected in NY state, USA (Central Park, Manhattan; Pelham Bay Park, Bronx; Prospect Park, Brooklyn; and Woodstock). Solenopsis invicta colonies were collected in Athens, GA, USA. M. mexicanus colonies were collected in Piñon Hills, CA, USA. Colonies comprised of queens, workers and brood were maintained in the laboratory in airtight acrylic boxes with plaster of Paris floors. Colonies were fed a diet of insects (flies, crickets and mealworms). White pupae were socially isolated, cocoons were removed in the case of P. pennsylvanica, and secretion droplets were collected from melanized pupae as described for O. biroi. A. mellifera pupae of unknown age were socially isolated from hive fragments (A&Z Apiaries, USA) and reared as described for O biroi, except that the rearing temperature was set to 32 °C. Relative humidity was set to either 100% to replicate conditions used for the different ant species, or to 75% as recommended in the literature30.Injecting dye and tracking pupal fluidInjection needles were prepared as in previous studies31. Injections were performed using an Eppendorf Femtojet with a Narishige micromanipulator. The Femtojet was set to Pi 1000 hPa and Pc 60 hPa. Needles were broken by gently touching the capillary tip to the side of a glass slide. To inject, melanized pupae were placed on ‘Sticky note’ tape (Post-it), with the abdomen tip forward and the ventral side upward. Pupae were injected with blue food colouring (McCormick) into the exuvium for 1–2 s by gently piercing the pupal case at the abdominal tip with the needle. During successful injections, no fluid was discharged from the pupa when the needle was removed, and the moulting fluid inside the exuvium was immediately stained. Pupae were washed in water three times to remove any excess dye. Following injections, 10 pupae were reared in social isolation to confirm the secretion of dyed droplets. For experiments, injected pupae were transferred to colonies with adult ants (Figs. 1f and  4c) or to colonies with adult ants and larvae (Figs. 3b and  4c) to track the distribution of the pupal social fluid.After spending 24 h with dye-injected pupae, adults were taken out of the colony, briefly immersed in 95% ethanol, and transferred to PBS. Digestive systems were dissected in cold PBS and mounted in DAKO mounting medium. Crop and stomach images (Fig. 1f, inset and Fig. 4c, inset) were acquired with a Revolve microscope (Echo). Larvae are translucent, and the presence of dye in the digestive system can be assayed without dissection. Whole-body images of larvae were acquired with a Leica Z16 APO microscope equipped with a Leica DFC450 camera and Leica Application Suite version 4.12.0 (Leica Microsystems). In the experiment on larval growth (Fig. 3c), larval length was measured from images using ImageJ32.Occluding pupaeTen pupae were placed on double-sided tape on a glass coverslip with the ventral side up. The area between the pupae was covered with laser-cut filter paper to prevent adults from sticking to the tape. The pupae were then placed in a 5 cm diameter Petri dish with a moist plaster of Paris floor. To block pupal secretion, the tip of the gaster was occluded with a drop of oil-paint (Uni Paint Markers PX-20), which has no discernible toxic effect7. Secreting pupae received a drop of the same paint on their head to control for putative differences resulting from the paint. Pupae were left in isolation for one day before adults were added to the assay chamber.Behavioural tracking of adult preference assayVideos were recorded using BFS-U3-50S5C-C: 5.0 MP, 35 FPS, Sony IMX264, Colour cameras (FLIR) and the Motif Video Recording System (Loopbio). To assess adult preference (Fig. 1g), physical contact of adults with pupae was manually annotated for the first 10 min after the first adult had encountered (physically contacted) a pupa.Protein profilingWe extracted 30 µl of pupal social fluid and whole-body wash samples with 75:25:0.2 acetonitrile: methanol: formic acid. Extracts were vortexed for 10 min, centrifuged at 16,000g and 4 °C for 10 min, dried in a SpeedVac, and stored at −80 °C until they were analysed by LC–MS/MS.Protein pellets were dissolved in 8 M urea, 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate, and 10 mM dithiothreitol, and disulfide bonds were reduced for 1 h at room temperature. Alkylation was performed by adding iodoacetamide to a final concentration of 20 mM and incubating for 1 h at room temperature in the dark. Samples were diluted using 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate until the concentration of urea had reached 3.5 M, and proteins were digested with endopeptidase LysC overnight at room temperature. Samples were further diluted to bring the urea concentration to 1.5 M before sequencing-grade modified trypsin was added. Digestion proceeded for 6 h at room temperature before being halted by acidification with TFA and samples were purified using in-house constructed C18 micropurification tips.LC–MS/MS analysis was performed using a Dionex3000 nanoflow HPLC and a Q-Exactive HF mass spectrometer (both Thermo Scientific). Solvent A was 0.1% formic acid in water and solvent B was 80% acetonitrile, 0.1% formic acid in water. Peptides were separated on a 90-minute linear gradient at 300 nl min−1 across a 75 µm × 100 mm fused-silica column packed with 3 µm Reprosil C18 material (Dr. Maisch). The mass spectrometer operated in positive ion Top20 DDA mode at resolution 60 k/30 k (MS1/MS2) and AGC targets were 3 × 106/2 × 105 (MS1/MS2).Raw files were searched through Proteome Discoverer v.1.4 (Thermo Scientific) and spectra were queried against the O. biroi proteome using MASCOT with a 1% FDR applied. Oxidation of M and acetylation of protein N termini were applied as a variable modification and carbamidomethylation of C was applied as a static modification. The average area of the three most abundant peptides for a matched protein33 was used to gauge protein amounts within and between samples.Functional annotation and gene ontology enrichmentTo supplement the current functional annotation of the O. biroi genome34, the full proteome for canonical transcripts was retrieved from UniProtKB (UniProt release 2020_04) in FASTA format. We then applied the EggNog-Mapper tool35,36 (http://eggnog-mapper.embl.de, emapper version 1.0.3-35-g63c274b, EggNogDB version 2) using standard parameters (m diamond -d none –tax_scope auto –go_evidence non-electronic –target_orthologs all –seed_ortholog_evalue 0.001 –seed_ortholog_score 60 –query-cover 20 –subject-cover 0) to produce an expanded annotation for all GO trees (Molecular Function, Biological Process, Cellular Components). The list of proteins identified in the pupal fluid was evaluated for functional enrichment in these GO terms, P-values were adjusted with an FDR cut-off of 0.05, and the network plots were visualized using the clusterProfiler package37.Metabolite profilingFor bulk polar metabolite profiling, we used 10 µl aliquots of pupal social fluid and whole-body wash (pooled samples). For the time-series metabolite profiling, 1 µl of pupal social fluid and whole-body wash was used. Samples were extracted in 180 µl cold LC–MS grade methanol containing 1 μM of uniformly labelled 15N- and 13C-amino acid internal standards (MSK-A2-1.2, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories) and consecutive addition of 390 µl LC–MS grade chloroform followed by 120 µl of LC–MS grade water.The samples were vortexed vigorously for 10 min followed by centrifugation (10 min at 16,000g and 4 °C). The upper polar metabolite-containing layer was collected, flash frozen and SpeedVac-dried. Dried extracts were stored at −80 °C until LC–MS analysis.LC–MS was conducted on a Q-Exactive benchtop Orbitrap mass spectrometer equipped with an Ion Max source and a HESI II probe, which was coupled to a Vanquish UPLC system (Thermo Fisher Scientific). External mass calibration was performed using the standard calibration mixture every three days.Dried polar samples were resuspended in 60 µl 50% acetonitrile, and 5 µl were injected into a ZIC-pHILIC 150 × 2.1 mm (5 µm particle size) column (EMD Millipore). Chromatographic separation was achieved using the following conditions: buffer A was 20 mM ammonium carbonate, 0.1% (v/v) ammonium hydroxide (adjusted to pH 9.3); buffer B was acetonitrile. The column oven and autosampler tray were held at 40 °C and 4 °C, respectively. The chromatographic gradient was run at a flow rate of 0.150 ml min−1 as follows: 0–22 min: linear gradient from 90% to 40% B; 22–24 min: held at 40% B; 24–24.1 min: returned to 90% B; 24.1 −30 min: held at 90% B. The mass spectrometer was operated in full-scan, polarity switching mode with the spray voltage set to 3.0 kV, the heated capillary held at 275 °C, and the HESI probe held at 250 °C. The sheath gas flow was set to 40 units, the auxiliary gas flow was set to 15 units. The MS data acquisition was performed in a range of 55–825 m/z, with the resolution set at 70,000, the AGC target at 10 × 106, and the maximum injection time at 80 ms. Relative quantification of metabolite abundances was performed using Skyline Daily v 20.1 (MacCoss Lab) with a 2 ppm mass tolerance and a pooled library of metabolite standards to confirm metabolite identity (via data-dependent acquisition). Metabolite levels were normalized by the mean signal of 8 heavy 13C,15N-labelled amino acid internal standards (technical normalization).The raw data were searched for a targeted list of ~230 polar metabolites and the corresponding peaks were integrated manually using Skyline Daily software. We were able to assign peaks to 107 compounds based on high mass accuracy ( More

Area-based sub-targetWe found that 13.2% of Asian terrestrial landscapes were covered by PAs by the target date for Aichi 11 based on our in-country sources. However, it was 17.4% lower based on WDPA data (10.9%). The average increase in coverage across Asia during the 2010s was 0.4% ± SE 0.1% per year. PA coverage at the level of individual countries increased from a mean 11.1% in 2010 (SE = 1.4%) to 14.1% by 2020 (SE = 1.8%) based on our in-country sources, which was 16.5% higher than WDPA data (12.1 ± SE 1.6%). However, these overall figures concealed considerable country-level and sub-regional heterogeneity.A total of 8,673,433 km2 across 10 countries, equaling 19.6% of Asian terrestrial landscapes was managed as hunting concessions, governed by governments, communities or private sectors, but these areas have not been included in the countries’ report to the Protected Planet Initiative databases. Most of these areas are locally important in terms of biodiversity conservation and local socioeconomic outcomes which may qualify them as examples of “other effective area-based conservation measures” (OECMs). The increase in area-based conservation coverage represented by these areas, above the current Protected Planet Initiative statistic, ranged from 0.2% (Iran) to 41.4% (Russia). With that update incorporated, a total of 32.9% of Asian terrestrial landscapes are under protection, either as protected areas or hunting concessions (potentially as one type of OECMs).We found that 40% of Asian countries met a target of 17% coverage for PAs by 2020 based on our in-country sources, mainly in East and some South Asia, whereas West and Central Asian countries had generally not achieved this target (Figs. 1 and 2). We did not find any statistically significant association between the proportions of highly at-risk (CR/EN) mammalian species range outside PAs and the % PA extent in 2020 (β = −0.22 ± SE 0.15, t = −1.51, P = 0.14 in a Generalized Linear Model). The highest proportions of the highly at-risk (CR/EN) mammalian species range outside PAs were seen in West (βCR/EN_outsidePA = 1.77 ± SE 0.46, t = 3.86, P 10%, but Kuwait lost area. In East Asia, all countries showed at least some PA expansion (South Korea and Japan by >10%) whereas in Central Asia, almost no change was seen. It is also noteworthy that between 2010 and 2015, agricultural lands increased by 2.0% across the continent, averaging 0.51 ± SE 0.03% per year at country level, although 18 counties (45.0%) had agricultural land loss, mainly in West and Central Asia (12 out of 18 countries with agricultural land loss; Fig. 2).In our attempt to model the variation in achievement of area-based target (% PA extent), we found a single model with a ΔAICc weight of 1.0 (R2adj = 0.66; Table 1). There was no evidence to reject the null hypothesis that the model fits well (P = 0.99). This model included the predictors % agricultural extent in 2015, % PA extent in 2010, and sub-region (Table 1). Specifically, the coefficients suggested that countries with greater PA extent in 2010 and a smaller percentage of agricultural lands in 2015 were more likely to achieve higher percentage of PA extent by 2020 (βPAExtent2020 = 0.58 ± SE 0.10, t = 5.74, P  0.05).Table 2 Results of generalized linear models testing different hypotheses on the association between the percentage of ecoregions protected by the PA network in 2020 and ecological and geopolitical factors in Asian countries.Full size tableFor the coverage of highly at-risk (CR/EN) mammalian species, a single statistical model was also selected, with non-significant deviance goodness of fit (P = 0.83), which included only the % PA extent by 2020 and Region as predictors (R2adj = 0. 27). Although there was no evidence for association between the % PA extent by 2020 and the coverage of threatened species (βPAExtent2020 = −0.23 ± SE 0.15, t = −1.57, P = 0.13). However, the coverage of threatened species varied geographically, with high intercept differences for East Asia (βEastAsia = −0.23 ± SE 0.15, t = −1.57, P = 0.13), implying the largest median of range of highly at-risk (CR/EN) mammalian species outside the current network of PAs within each country.PA management effectiveness sub-targetFor the level of PAME assessment, we found that out of 22781 PAs within the 40 studied Asian countries, only 7.0% have been assessed based on PAME criteria (n = 1599), averaging 17.4% ± of PAs per country (SE = 2.5%). Israel, Japan, Lao, Bahrain, Oman and Qatar had no PA assessed based on the PAME criteria while over 1/3 of PAs in Indonesia, Cambodia, Bhutan, Jordan, Nepal, Turkey, Singapore and the UAE were PAME assessed. When modeling the level of PAME assessment, three best supported models were averaged (Table 3), with the averaged model including GDP2019, % PA extent 2020 and the Region as predictors. The averaged model coefficients would be non-significant under a hypothesis-testing approach (βGDP2019 = −0.18 ± SE 0.12, t = 1.47, P = 0.14 and βPAExtent2020 = −0.15 ± SE 0.11, t = 1.31, P = 0.19). Similarly, there was no evidence for the association between the ratio of PAs with PAME and Asian regions (P  > 0.05).Table 3 Results of generalized linear models testing different hypotheses on the association between the ratio of PAs with management effectiveness (PAME) in 2020 and ecological and geopolitical factors in Asian countries.Full size table More

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