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Nearly two years into the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science, research, including some featured in this month’s issue, shows that there is still a wealth of scientific secrets to uncover in the ocean depths.
In many ways, considering the ocean as a single unit is overly broad. The global ocean covers 71% of the planet’s surface, reaches down to depths of over 10 kilometres, includes about 1.35 billion cubic kilometres of water and houses an approximated 2.2 million eukaryotic species. There are distinct regions, with distinct physical properties, and, in turn, there are distinct species. Yet, the world’s oceans do have a level of physical and thematic connectivity.
Credit: Daria Zaseda / DigitalVision Vectors / GettyPhysically, a large part of the connection is related to the presence of large rotating ocean currents that transfer heat across latitudes and contribute to ocean mixing (thermohaline circulation). Some of these currents are warming at alarming rates — up to three times faster than the rest of the ocean, leading to questions about the underlying mechanisms of the warming and expectations for change.Focusing on western boundary currents (WBCs) in the Southern Hemisphere, in an Article in this issue of Nature Climate Change, Li and colleagues answer a long-debated question on the mechanisms of change, showing that temperature-gradient-related instabilities, rather than flow-speed-related instabilities are behind the shifts. In another Article, focusing on the global future changes of eddies (including eddy-rich WBCs), Beech and colleagues report the development of a flexible method that maximizes local model resolution while minimizing computational costs, to reveal the long-term geographical specificities and nonlinear temperature increases expected to 2100 (see also the News and Views article by Yang on these papers).A recent paper1 has demonstrated the important role of large ocean currents in defining plankton biogeography and dynamics, and WBC warming has previously been linked to impacts such as fishery collapses. The tight link between physical processes and biological responses is an underscoring theme of climate change ecology, but is perhaps more apparent in the open ocean, where physical processes can be easily (if imperfectly) linked to primary productivity using remotely sensed phytoplankton pigment absorption, and where life is generally less impacted by geographical, political or disturbance-based boundaries compared with land and freshwater systems. These aspects may facilitate modelling of current and future communities, while also allowing broader assumptions to be made about biological movement and connectivity.Despite these benefits, understanding ocean change comes with its own difficulties. Biological sampling, while easy enough in the surface waters, becomes increasingly difficult at depth. Although future habitats for various organisms have been projected on the basis of their thermal limits in the ocean, these predictions often still rely on temperatures at the surface of the sea. Addressing this, Santana-Falcón and colleagues report in an Article the global mapping of ocean temperature changes to depths of 1,000 metres, and reveal the complex depth-dependent changes in thermal upper and lower bounds that marine organisms will soon be subjected to. In another Article, Ariza and colleagues neatly address the issue of directly monitoring deep-ocean change by compiling a large database of sound-based observations, and subsequently classifying the ocean’s ‘echobiomes’, defined as sound-scattering communities with comparable structural and functional properties (see also the accompanying News and Views article by Hazen). Sound-based methods are also increasingly being used on land2, and represent an exciting tool for monitoring change, particularly in hard-to-reach places such as deep forests, high mountaintops or underground. While the sound reflection method used in the study by Ariza and colleagues has limits in its ability to identify organisms at the individual or species levels, it does provide a community-level focus on change, which remains much needed in the field of global change ecology.At the other end of the spatial spectrum, research by Lee and colleagues reported in an Article also in this issue dives deep into the DNA of a keystone ocean organism (a copepod), to understand the mechanisms that may allow longer-term adaptation to warming and pH stress. The work reveals remarkable adaptation over just a few short generations, which is linked to epigenetic changes. As climate change impacts continue to escalate, the ability of organisms to invoke both shorter- and longer-term adaptations has become an increasingly relevant area of research. Epigenetics has previously been reported as a quick-response method to cope with environmental stress, and may be particularly relevant in defining the adaptation of short-lived animals such as insects and the resilience of the communities they uphold.The five research pieces linked to the oceans in this issue reveal just some of the diversity of topics, methods and scales relevant to understanding global change. Also increasingly relevant are works on ocean conservation3 and on the social and economic impacts of ocean change4,5. Like climate change science, the topic of ocean change is less of a field, and more of a cross-disciplinary theme. More

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General description of the experimental areaThe experiment was performed for two years at the National Key Irrigation Experimental Station located on the Songnen Plain in Heping town, Qing’an County, Suihua, Heilongjiang, China, with a geographical location of 45° 63′ N and 125° 44′ E at an elevation of 450 m above sea level (Fig. 1). This region consists of plain topography and has a semiarid cold temperate continental monsoon climate, i.e., a typical cold region with a black soil distribution area. The average annual temperature is 2.5 °C, the average annual precipitation is 550 mm, the precipitation is concentrated from June to September of each year, and the average annual surface evaporation is 750 mm. The growth period of crops is 156–171 days, and there is a frost-free period of approximately 128 days year−122. The soil at the study site is albic paddy soil with a mean bulk density of 1.01 g/cm3 and a porosity of 61.8% prevails. The basic physicochemical properties of the soil were as follows: the mass ratio of organic matter was 41.8 g/kg, pH value was 6.45, total nitrogen mass ratio was 15.06 g/kg, total phosphorus mass ratio was 15.23 g/kg, total potassium mass ratio was 20.11 g/kg, mass ratio of alkaline hydrolysis nitrogen was 198.29 mg/kg, available phosphorus mass ratio was 36.22 mg/kg and available potassium mass ratio was 112.06 mg/kg.Figure 1Location of the study area. The map and inset map in this image were drawn by the authors using ArcGIS software. The software version used was ArcGIS software v.10.2, and its URL is http://www.esri.com/.Full size imageHumic acid fertilizerHumic acid fertilizer was produced by Yunnan Kunming Grey Environmental Protection Engineering Co., Ltd., China (Fig. 2). The organic matter was ≥ 61.4%, and the total nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) were ≥ 18.23%, of which N ≥ 3.63%, P2O5 ≥ 2.03%, and K2O ≥ 12.57%. The moisture content was ≤ 2.51%, the pH value was 5.7, the worm egg mortality rate was ≥ 95%, and the amount of faecal colibacillosis was ≤ 3%. The fertilizer contained numerous elements necessary for plants. The contents of harmful elements, including arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium and chromium, were ≤ 2.8%, 0.01%, 7.6%, 0.1% and 4.7%, respectively; these were lower than the test standard.Figure 2Humic acid fertilizer in powder form.Full size imageExperimental design and observation methodsIrrigationIn this experiment, three irrigation practices, namely, control irrigation (C), wet irrigation (W) and flood irrigation (F), were designed (Table 1).Table 1 Different irrigation methods.Full size tableControl irrigation (C) of rice had no water layer in the rest of the growing stages, except for the shallow water layer at the regreen stage of rice, which was maintained at 0–30 mm, and the natural dryness in the yellow stage. The irrigation time and irrigation quota were determined by the root soil moisture content as the control index. The upper limit of irrigation was the saturated moisture content of the soil, the lower limit of soil moisture at each growth stage was the percentage of saturated moisture content, and the TPIME-PICO64/32 soil moisture analyser was used to determine the soil moisture content at 7:00 a.m. and 18:00 p.m., respectively. When the soil moisture content was close to or lower than the lower limit of irrigation, artificial irrigation occurred until the upper irrigation limit was reached. The soil moisture content was maintained between the upper irrigation limit and the lower irrigation limit of the corresponding fertility stage. Under the wet irrigation (W) and flood irrigation (F) conditions, it was necessary to read the depth of the water layer through bricks and a vertical ruler embedded in the field before and after 8:00 am every day to determine if irrigation was needed. If irrigation was needed, then the water metre was recorded before and after each irrigation. The difference between before and after was the amount of irrigation23.FertilizationIn our research, five fertilization methods were applied, as shown in Table 2. In this experiment, the rice cultivar “Suijing No. 18” was selected. Urea and humic acid fertilizer were applied according to the proportion of base fertilizer:tillering fertilizer:heading fertilizer (5:3:2). The amounts of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers were the same for all treatments, and P2O5 (45 kg ha−1) and K2O (80 kg ha−1) were used. Phosphorus was applied once as a basal application. Potassium fertilizer was applied twice: once as a basal fertilizer and at 8.5 leaf age (panicle primordium differentiation stage) at a 1:1 ratio22.Table 2 The fertilizer methods.Full size tableThis study was performed with a randomized complete block design with three replications. Three irrigation practices and five fertilizer methods were applied, for a total of 15 treatments as follows: CT1, CT2, CT3, CT4, CT5; WT1, WT2, WT3, WT4, WT5; FT1, FT2, FT3, FT4, and FT5 (C, W, and F represent control irrigation, wet irrigation, and flood irrigation; T represents fertilizer treatment).Measurements of the samplesA soil temperature sensor (HZTJ1-1) was buried in each experimental plot to monitor the temperature of each soil layer (5 cm, 10 cm, 15 cm, 20 cm and 25 cm depth). The transmission of photosynthetically active radiation was measured from 11:00 to 13:00 by using a SunScan Canopy Analysis System (Delta T Devices, Ltd., Cambridge, UK), and data during the crop-growing season were recorded every day24.Plant measurements were taken during the periods of tillering to ripening on days with no wind and good light. The fluorescence parameters were measured by a portable fluorescence measurement system (Li-6400XT, America). The detection light intensity was 1500 μmol m−2 s−1, and the saturated pulsed light intensity was 7200 μmolm−2 s−1. The functional leaves were dark adapted for 30 min, and then the maximum photosynthetic efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) was measured. Photochemical quenching (QP) and nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ) were measured with natural light. Simultaneously, the leaf chlorophyll relative content (SPAD) was monitored using SPAD 502 (Konica Minolta, Inc., Tokyo, Japan). For plant agronomic characteristics, the distance from the stem base to the stem tip was measured with a straight ruler to quantify plant height24.Statistical analysisExperimental data obtained for different parameters were analysed statistically using the analysis of variance technique as applicable to randomized complete block design. Duncan’s multiple range test was employed to assess differences between the treatment means at a 5% probability level. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 22.0 for Windows24.
Ethics approvalExperimental research and field studies on plants, including the collection of plant material, comply with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation. We had appropriate permissions/licences to perform the experiment in the study area. More

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Sightings of some common bird species increased during the UK’s 2020 lockdown.Credit: Tolga Akmen/AFP via Getty

People weren’t the only ones who changed their ways during the COVID-19 pandemic — birds did, too. Four out of five of the most commonly observed birds in the United Kingdom altered their behaviour during the nation’s first lockdown of 2020, although they did so in different ways depending on the species, according to an analysis.The study, published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B on 21 September1, is one of several that used the disruptions brought about by the pandemic — from a reduction in the number of cars on the roads to the closure of some national parks — to quantify the impact that humanity has on the natural world. Although some research has found that lockdowns had a largely positive effect on wildlife2, the latest data from the United Kingdom provide a much more nuanced picture (see Bird Behaviour).

Credit: Warrington et al/Proceedings of the Royal Society B

“People didn’t disappear during the lockdown,” says co-author Miyako Warrington, a behavioural ecologist at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada. “We changed our behaviour, and wildlife responded.”Rare experimentIn the early months of the pandemic, social media was abuzz with reports of wild animals being seen in unusual places. These claims were partially validated when Warrington and her colleagues reported that, in 2020, many bird species in the United States and Canada were spotted moving into spaces usually occupied by people2.To see how a COVID-19 lockdown affected birds in the United Kingdom, Warrington and her colleagues tallied sightings of the 25 most common birds between March and July 2020 — during the country’s first lockdown — and compared their data set with data from previous years. In total, the study included around 870,000 observations.The team then compared this information to data showing how people split their time between home, essential shops and parks: three places people in the United Kingdom were allowed to be during the lockdown.Because people spent more time at home and in parks than before March 2020, the analysis found that 20 of the 25 bird species examined behaved differently during lockdown. Parks — which were flooded with visitors — saw an an uptick in the numbers of corvids and gulls, whereas smaller birds, such as Eurasian blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) and house sparrows (Passer domesticus), were spotted less frequently than in previous years. And because people spent more time at home, the number of avian species that visited domestic gardens also dropped, by around one-quarter, compared with previous years.Other species, including rock pigeons (Columba livia), didn’t react to the lockdown at all. Warrington found this surprising, because pigeons are city dwellers, so she thought they would be affected by the changes in people’s behaviour. “But they don’t give a crap about what we do,” she says.Adapting to changeThe birds that altered their habits during the lockdown were probably responding to changes in human behaviour, says Warrington. Tits and other birds whose numbers dipped might have fled when people and their pets started spending more time in parks and gardens. The reverse could be true for scavengers, such as gulls and corvids, which might have benefited from park visitors leaving behind rubbish for them to feed on.When combined with the results of other studies, the behaviour of British birds reveals the complex ways in which wildlife was affected by lockdowns and underlines the importance of reducing the disturbance of animals by people, says Raoul Manenti, a conservation zoologist at the University of Milan in Italy.For Warrington, that means acknowledging that lockdowns were not universally good for wildlife. “Our relationship with nature is complicated,” she says. By developing a better understanding of this relationship, “we know we can affect positive change as long as we do it in a thoughtful manner”. More