Philippa Kaur

Predator abundanceThe number of predators on the aphid colonies varied spatiotemporally (Fig. 2). In particular, the number of predators in population A was significantly larger than that in population B in August but not in September (August, t20 = 3.93, P  0.05). In population A, we found predators on the aphid colonies in August and September, but not in June and July. In August, the only predators found were A. ignipicta larvae (0.76 ± 0.19 individuals per aphid colony), whereas in September the predators comprised both A. ignipicta larvae (0.033 ± 0.033 individuals per aphid colony) and T. hamada larvae (0.033 ± 0.033 individuals per aphid colony). In population B, we found no predators in any of the months.Figure 2Temporal and between-population variation in the number of predators per aphid colony. The number of predators represents the sum of the numbers of A. ignipicta and T. hamada larvae. Error bars denote s.e. Asterisks indicate a significant difference between populations (***P  More

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Occurrence of pesticides in small mammals: general patternsA total of 112 different compounds were detected over the 140 parent pesticides and metabolites screened in hair samples (80% of the compounds screened). The full lists of compounds with their acronyms, the details of their full names and chemical families are provided in Tables 1 and 2.Table 1 Concentrations of banned and restricted pesticides (BRPs) in small mammal hair samples, classified by decreasing number of detection.Full size tableTable 2 Concentrations of currently used pesticides (CUPs) in small mammal hair samples, ordered by decreasing number of detection.Full size tableAs a whole, 51 BRPs over 67 analyzed (76%) were detected in small mammal hair, with 27 parent chemicals detected out of 39 screened (67%) and 25 metabolites detected out of 28 (89%) (Table 1). Thirteen compounds were present in more than 75% of individuals: DMP, PNP, 1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)urea, DEP, PCP, 3Me4NP, 1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-3-methylurea, DETP, fipronil, fipronil sulfone, trifluralin, DMTP and HCB. Most of them are transformation products of organochlorine, organophosphorous, urea and phenylpyrazole pesticides. Then, the proportion of detection rapidly dropped under 25% of the samples. Only three compounds were detected in 50–75% of the individuals (Table 1: lindane γ-HCH (organochlorine insecticide), terbutryn (triazine/triazinone herbicide) and fenuron (urea herbicide). Five substances were found in 25–50% of the animals: DMST (metabolite of tolylfluanide, an amide fungicide), flusilazole (azole fungicide), α-endosulfan (organochlorine insecticide), DMDTP (organophosphorous insecticide metabolite) and diuron (urea herbicide). The 10 highest measured concentrations ranged between 30 and 118 ng/g, and were mostly represented by DMP (seven of the 10 values) together with PNP and 1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)urea. Seven compounds exhibited concentrations higher than 10 ng/g, which were the same as the most frequent: DMP, PNP, 1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)urea, DEP, PCP, 3Me4NP, plus DEDTP (organophosphorous metabolite, 6% of individuals). Considering the 16 BRPs that have never been detected, 13 were parent pesticides and three were metabolites, distributed in one fungicide, three herbicides, and 12 insecticides/biocides. The non-detected compounds belong to several chemical families including organochlorines, organophosphorous, carbamate, and urea pesticides.A total of 61 CUPs out of 73 analyzed were detected in small mammal hair, with 54 parent pesticides out of 66 tested (82%) and seven metabolites detected out of seven screened (100%) (Table 2). Many of the detected CUPs were found in a large proportion of individuals: 25 compounds were detected in more than 75% of the individuals, which means that 41% of the 61 detected CUPs were present in 75–100% of individuals. These 25 most frequently detected compounds belonged to various chemical families and all uses of CUPs (Table 2). The herbicides belonged to the families of organochlorines (metolachlor and metazachlor), acid herbicides (MCPA, 2,4-d,dichlorprop and mecoprop), thiocarbamates (prosulfocarb), amide pesticides (dimethachlor), uracils (lenacil), and dinitroaniline (pendimethalin). The fungicides were of the main families strobilurines (azoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin), azoles (tebuconazole, epoxiconazole, thiabendazole, prochloraz, and propiconazole; cyproconazole in 73% of individuals), carbamates (carbendazim) and carboxamides (boscalid). The most frequently detected insecticides were mainly metabolites of pyrethroids (3-PBA, Cl2CA, and ClCF3CA), as well as neonicotinoids (thiacloprid and imidacloprid) and the specific metabolite of chlorpyrifos TCPy (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol; organophosphorous pesticide). Noticeably, the five herbicides isoproturon (urea), propyzamide (benzamide), chlortoluron (urea), oxadiazon (oxadiazin) and diflufenican (carboxamide), as well as the fungicide trifloxystrobin (strobilurin) and the insecticide cypermethrine (pyrethroid), were detected in at least 50% of the samples (Table 2). Five more compounds were detected in 25–50% of animals: zoxamide (benzamide), difenoconazole (azole), cyhalothrin and Br2CA (pyrethroids), and 2,4-DB (acid herbicide). The 10 highest measured concentrations ranged from 200 to 500 ng/g, which were far higher than for BRPs. These high concentrations were found for the fungicides boscalid, carbendazim, and prochloraz and the herbicides dichlorprop, MCPA, and propyzamide. A greater number of compounds exhibited higher concentrations than observed for BRPs, since 29 compounds presented concentrations higher than 10 ng/g. Moreover, 16 compounds were quantified at higher levels than 50 ng/g, and 10 compounds at higher levels than 100 ng/g (Table 2). The 10 compounds that had the highest concentrations were the herbicides propyzamide, MCPA, dichlorprop, diflufenican, mecoprop, and metolachlor, and the fungicides boscalid, epoxiconazole, carbendazim, and prochloraz. They were not all among the most detected compounds (Table 2). Six compounds exhibited concentrations ranging from 50 to 100 ng/g: the insecticide imidacloprid, the herbicides aclonifen and isoproturon, and the fungicides cyproconazole, propiconazole and tebuconazole. Various chemical families are represented among the CUPs exhibiting high concentrations in small mammals, including carbamates, carboxamids and benzamids, acid and urea herbicids, azoles and neonicotinoids (Table 2). The insecticides showed concentrations overall lower than herbicides and fungicides, since no value above 50 ng/g was measured within insecticides except for imidacloprid. Besides the neonicotinoid imidacloprid, the insecticides showing the highest values ( > 10 ppb) were all pyrethroids, either parents or their metabolites (cyfluthrine, cyhalothrine, permethrine, 3-PBA, Br2CA, Cl2CA). Among the 12 CUPs that have never been detected, only parent compounds were present, with six fungicides, two herbicides and four insecticides belonging to various chemical families such as azole, carbamate, organophosphorous, triazine, neonicotinoid, strobilurine, oxadiazine and urea pesticides.A significant positive relationship was found between detections of CUPs in small mammal hair samples and the quantities of pesticides sold in 2016 in the Region were the ZAPVS is located (i.e. Deux-Sèvre, where most of small mammals in this study were captured and analyzed) (Spearman’s rho = 0.66, p-value More

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