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Global fire activity is changing in many areas as temperatures increase and land use intensifies1,2,3,4,5. This is sparking an increase in attention given to fire activity and fire ecology. However, the availability of data for spatially delineated fire events is limited or non-existent in many countries6, with most global fire data coming from satellite-based active fire detections7,8 and gridded burned area products9,10. The lack of products containing delineated events has led to many global studies about fire ecology that are computationally-intensive, coarse-scale trend analyses1,4.A key advantage of datasets like Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity (MTBS)11 or the Fire Occurrence Dataset12 lies in their ease of use. Since its inception in 2007 MTBS has been cited 947 times in peer-reviewed studies according to a Google Scholar search at the time of this writing, despite documented limitations for scientific use of some facets of the product13. The MTBS dataset is regularly updated, easy to find on the internet, and it is free, fast and easy to download and use. Many environmental scientists and resource managers do not have the computational budget or expertise in big data or remote sensing to deal with the challenges one must overcome to process large fire datasets. This is especially true for cases when all that is needed is a shapefile of fire perimeters that can be used to map fire history. Other global fire perimeter datasets have been produced from satellite-derived burned area products14,15, but these are only available in yearly or monthly global shapefiles. Often field-based studies of fire effects require an entire time series over study areas that are only a few hundred km in diameter16 or a single ecoregion17. The end user who wants to understand the fire history for their region would have to download yearly shapefiles with a global extent, clip all of those shapefiles to their area of interest, and then combine them into one shapefile, just to get started. We suspect that the lack of accessible fire perimeter datasets that are easy to download and use contributes to a disparity in research, where fire ecology studies are conducted mostly in developed countries that have either research infrastructure capable of handling big data or longer-term government records, or temperate forested regions that have substantial tree-ring records18.There are two existing global perimeter products, the Global Fire Atlas (GFA) (Andela et al.14) and the Global Wildfire Information System (GWIS) (Artes et al.15). Both were created by applying spatiotemporal flooding algorithms to the MODIS MCD64 Burned Area Product. These algorithms assign burned pixels from the MCD64 products using a moving window whose size is defined by spatial and temporal parameters. They are created as monthly or yearly slices of the entire globe, and they can be subsetted. These products are extremely valuable for global scale studies. But when we look at how those products delineate known fire events we see a consistent problem in that they both seem to over-segment events in ways that appear unrealistic. This inconsistent event delineation is not problematic for coarse-scale or regional estimates of burned area or fire seasonality, but can lead to unrealistic estimates for number of fire events and event-level characteristics like fire size and spread rate. In Fig. 1 we illustrate this with an example of the 2013 Rim Fire in California, United States, which was unmistakably a single event that burned about 90,000 ha over the course of three months. Figure 2 illustrates how the day-to-day progression of the Rim Fire was a steady progression from a single ignition in late August. Table 1 shows how the differences in event delineation propagate to calculations of burned area and number of events. In the GFA, the Rim Fire is delineated as one large event of 804.5 km2, and 13 additional events totaling 88.7 km2. in GWIS it is delineated as one event of 878 km2 and 47 additional events totalling 20 km2. With FIRED, there is one event of 892 km2 and 2 single pixel events totalling less than one km2. One cause for potential differences is how one defines a “fire event”. Large fires often have multiple ignition sources. The Global Fire Atlas algorithm and others19, for example, search for local minima to identify various ignition locations that may begin as small patches, only to later form a large complex and in the end described with a single fire perimeter. The choice of outside sources for optimizing the spatial-temporal parameters, the method of optimization, and the intent of the final product’s meaning (defining events as single ignition patches vs contiguous burned area) all lead to different outcomes in the final events that are delineated. Another likely source of this discrepancy is that GWIS and GFA are calibrated to create a single global product. Because different geographical areas have different types of fire regimes, they have fires that grow at different rates and to different sizes, and occur in greater or fewer frequencies, and so the spatial and temporal parameters that work well for defining a fire event in one area may result in over- or under-segmentation in other areas. Here, we decided upon an approach of creating many regional products across the globe, rather than one product for everywhere on earth.Fig. 1Comparison of global fire event products performance for the 2013 Rim Fire (a). In the FIRED product (b), the Rim fire was classified as one very large event with two single pixel events. The Global Fire Atlas (GFA, c) and Global Wildfire Information System (GWIS, d) each delineated a very large event, with 13 and 47 smaller events, respectively.Full size imageFig. 2The two primary outputs FIREDpy provides are a daily- and event-level product. Panel a shows the default single event polygon. In b, each day has a separate polygon, with associated statistics generated, within each event. Panel c shows the daily perimeters derived from the airborne infrared by the incident management team for comparison.Full size imageTable 1 Rim fire comparison.Full size tableBesides the ease of access and use, the advantage of the FIRED product lies in the user’s ability to use the open-source software, FIREDpy, to tailor the spatial and temporal parameters of the moving window algorithm in order to realistically delineate events for their region of interest. In Fig. 3, we illustrate this by comparing the three products for a pair of small fires in Florida. In this case, the FIRED product that was created with a larger moving window (5 pixels and 11 days) over-aggregated the events, but it only required one line of code at command line to recreate the product with a smaller moving window (1 pixel and 5 days) to get more realistic results.Fig. 3Product comparison for two small events in Florida, the Moonshine Bay and Sour Orange fires (outlined) that both ignited in February of 2007 and were delineated by MTBS. In b the firedpy product that was optimized for the entire United States with a moving window of 5 pixels, 11 days resulted in aggregation of the two fires delineated by MTBS, but also several smaller fires nearby. In b, it was re-ran with a window of one pixel and five days, for a more realistic result. Delineations by the Global Fire Atlas (c) and the Global Wildfire Information System (d) are shown for comparison.Full size imageHere, we present a collection of regionally-tailored fire perimeter datasets for every country in the world with significant fire activity20, which we created with the open source algorithm, FIREDpy21. Each dataset is either a single country or a broader region, depending on the data volume. These datasets differ from other similar efforts14,15 in that each dataset created by FIREDpy is a single file containing a collection of polygons that is generated for the entire time series, rather than monthly or yearly aggregations with a global extent. Furthermore, we have generated the data products at a spatial extent land managers and ecologists would typically use to do regional-scale research, and we adjusted the spatial and temporal parameters for each country to yield realistic event delineations. We also made every effort to ensure that download sizes are reasonable (  More

Microbial biodiversity surveys have often been done in a number of generally better-studied regions3, as with the San Pedro Time Series from the San Pedro Channel off the coast of Southern California. Global surveys have also been emerging, such as the Sorcerer II Global Ocean Sampling Expedition from 2004 to 2006 launched by J. Craig Venter. There are also data and samples from the Malaspina circumnavigation, an expedition devoted to data collection on ocean biodiversity and climate change that was led by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.As microbiome researcher Shinichi Sunagawa of the ETH Zurich and colleagues point out4, sequencing technologies have advanced such that they now enable systematic and quantitative global ocean surveys. These advances, in turn, made it possible to find and assess marine double-stranded DNA virus populations. This latest work on marine RNA viruses, says Sunagawa, in which he was also involved, embeds new phylum-level findings into a “robust taxonomic framework.” In his view, this research ranks in importance with the reconstruction a few years ago of a group of bacterial genomes representing more than 35 phyla that the researchers call “the candidate phyla radiation”5. If one counts viruses in with other taxonomic groups, the finding might be the largest single expansion of established microbial taxonomy, he says. And he especially likes the definition of a new basal Orthornavirae megataxon, the proposed phylum ‘Taraviricota’. This proposed phylum is one of several findings from recently published analyses of sampling data from Tara Oceans1,2, a global expedition supported by the Tara Ocean Foundation, or Fondation Tara Océan, based in France and with many partner organizations and supporters. The foundation is a major source of global data about the ocean and ocean microbes and, as its president Étienne Bourgois says, it’s a “family project.” The family business is the French fashion house agnès b., founded by his mother Agnès Troublé.Because the family cares about the sea, they bought a 36-meter schooner from Lady Pippa Blake, widow of yachtsman and explorer Sir Peter Blake, after pirates killed him during an environmental expedition in the Amazon delta, and turned it into the expedition vessel and floating science laboratory Tara, devoted to understanding and protecting the world’s marine environment. It’s a way to continue what Peter Blake started, to continue the conversation about the ocean and do research as well, says sailor-scientist Romain Troublé, executive director of the foundation and nephew of Agnès Troublé. The boat had been previously owned by explorer Jean-Louis Étienne. The foundation has supported several expeditions with Tara including the Tara Oceans and Tara Oceans Polar Circle expeditions, as well as Tara Mission Microbiomes, which is currently underway. The equilibrium of the planet “depends on the microbiome of the ocean in the same way we depend on our own microbiome,” says Romain Troublé. Viruses are part of the larger picture of how life is supported on the planet. It’s “a great mystery of the century” to decipher the roles, behaviors and functions of the ocean microbiome, including its beneficial effects. Over the last decade, he says, the expeditions have, for example, collected plankton samples from coastal waters, coral reefs and the high seas around the world for scientists to ask questions of. Microplastics in the ocean concentrate chemical pollutants such as pesticides, and microplastics appear to be substrates for distinct microbiomes. Polystyrene and polypropylene, for example, harbor different microbial communities. “We call it the plastisphere,” he says. All sample collection, not just of microplastics, happens with a view to scientific rigor to assure data quality, says Troublé. Many institutes are part of and support the expeditions through the Tara Ocean Foundation, including AtlantECO, the French Ministry of Research, the Swiss National Science Foundation, the US National Science Foundation, the European Molecular Biology Laboratory and the French National Centre for Scientific Research.Tara Oceans was an expedition initiated by EMBL researcher Eric Karsenti, here in the foreground. He is checking a rosette of Niskin bottles that collect water, and ocean microbe samples, at various depths. Sensors capture parameters such as temperature.
Credit: Fondation Tara OcéanIts expedition Tara Oceans was initiated by cell and marine biologist Eric Karsenti of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory. The expedition ran from 2009 to 2013 and covered 125,000 kilometers of ocean, taking ocean water and samples. It collected nearly 35,000 samples of viruses, algae and plankton and delivered more than 60 terabases of DNA and RNA sequences.The research community strives to follow FAIR data principles, the principles of findability, accessibility, interoperability and reusability, says Sunagawa. Tara Ocean’s data troves can be found, for instance, in the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA), Pangeaea, Cyverse, iVIRUS and on Genoscope. Other data-collection efforts target users with less programming experience and offer various types of data relevant to marine microbial research, he says: for example, the Ocean Gene Atlas, a portal to search for a gene or protein sequence to see, for instance, its abundance on an ocean map. The Ocean Barcode Atlas lets users explore, for example, operational taxonomic units (OTU) data and plankton communities from Tara Oceans and OTUs from Malaspina prokaryote data. Sunagawa also points to the Ocean Microbiomics Database and its high-quality genome-resolved information about the global microbiome, which has sequencing data from 2003 onwards and which includes Tara Oceans data as well as datasets such as the Hawaii Ocean Time-Series (HOT), the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS), with its collection of ocean data dating back to 1988, and BioGeotraces, with hydrographic and marine geochemical data from various expeditions.The recent publications on RNA viruses1,2, in which Sunagawa was also involved, have expanded the known diversity of these viruses, he says. They build on efforts by, for example, the research team that created and applied a cloud-based infrastructure called Serratus6, with which researchers can perform sequence alignment using bowtie2 for nucleotide sequences and DIAMOND2 for protein sequences in ‘ultra-high throughput’ on a petabase scale. Using Serratus, the team identified more than 130,000 previously unknown RNA viruses, both on land and in the oceans. The wealth of resources for microbial and viral data about the oceans is helpful to the research community, but “we could still improve the connectivity between various datasets though,” says Sunagawa. That would help, for example, with searching and finding data products that are derived from primary data, such as identifiers of individual genome assemblies, genes and metagenome assembled genomes, which are all presented in different online locations. But connecting data resources is a project that itself takes resources, and such projects are hard to get funding for.Going forward, it will be challenging, says Sunagawa, to update and keep up to date both past projects and ongoing projects such as the Global Ocean Ship-based Hydrographic Investigations program (GO-SHIP), which is focused on physical oceanography; the Antarctic Circumnavigation Expedition (ACE), on carbon-cycle marine biogeochemistry; Mission Microbiomes; and many more. “And ultimately, we will need to cross boundaries that currently separate biome-focused research to better understand processes at the sea–land–atmosphere interfaces.”Tara Mission Microbiomes has been underway for nearly two years and wraps up in October 2022. At press time, the schooner Tara was off the Angolan Coast. At the end of the expedition, it will have traveled a total of 70,000 km of ocean area around South America, Africa, Europe and Antarctica. Mission Microbiomes is part of the EU-funded AtlantECO and also includes 42 research organizations from 13 countries. The microbiome mission is collecting data on how climate change is affecting the marine microbiome, on how pollution, microplastics pollution in particular, affects the marine environments and on the beneficial impact of the ocean microbiome.Krill are small ocean crustaceans that mainly eat phytoplankton and are a food source for animals such as whales and seals. Krill play a crucial role in biogeochemical cycles.
Credit: F. Aurat, Fondation Tara OcéanChris Bowler, from the Institut de Biologie de l’École Normale Supérieure, is scientific director of the Tara Oceans consortium, was scientific coordinator of the Tara Oceans expedition and was onboard in Antarctica during the Tara Mission Microbiomes expedition to collect data on the impact of icebergs on the Weddell Sea ecosystem. The project’s scientists in Tara Mission Microbiomes, he says, are studying specific processes, including the Amazon plume, the Malvinas confluence, the impact of tabular icebergs in the Weddell Sea, the Benguela upwelling and more. The data from this expedition will be similar to those from Tara Oceans but, he says, “we will have much more contextual data related to the specific processes we have been studying.” The applied techniques are all ones that have undergone much advancement since Tara Oceans, he says. They include long-read sequencing, Hi-C sequencing to capture chromatin organization on a genome-wide basis and various types of microscopy.Data and results from previous and ongoing expeditions are impressive, says Sunagawa but “we are still data-limited in our field of research.” Geographically, sampling stations are usually still separated by hundreds of kilometers, and often they are even further apart than that. This means that what is missing is both temporal and seasonal resolution, “and we keep detecting new organisms,” he says. Tara Mission Microbiomes will help to fill in some of these gaps. The mission is unlike Tara Oceans, with its focus more on coastal areas and environmental pollutants such as microplastics. Sunagawa and his group are not currently involved with Tara Mission Microbiomes, “but we look forward to seeing the first results coming out soon.”Through photosynthesis, phytoplankton deliver oxygen to the planet. They are food for zooplankton, which are food for other marine organisms. This food web and its associated decomposition are part of the ocean’s carbon pump, in which marine viruses play an important role that scientists have only begun exploring.
Credit: M. Bardy, Fondation Tara Océan More

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