Ecology

AbstractTraditional medicinal plants remain vital healthcare resources for rural communities, particularly in areas with limited access to modern medical services. This study documents and quantitatively analyzes the ethnobotanical use of medicinal plants in Meketewa District, northwestern Ethiopia. Ethnobotanical data were collected from 360 informants (20 key informants and 340 general informants) across five kebeles (Sub-Districts) representing different agroecological zones. Data were analyzed using preference ranking, direct matrix ranking (DMR), informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL), Jaccard similarity index (JSI), Rahman’s similarity index (RSI), t-tests, and one-way ANOVA. The distribution of indigenous medicinal plant knowledge was significantly influenced by agroecology and socio-demographic factors, including age, gender, education, and knowledge experience. A total of 76 medicinal plant species belonging to 46 families were documented, with Fabaceae as the dominant family (7.9%) and herbs as the most common growth form (38.16%). Most species were used for human ailments (63.2%), while 9.2% were used for livestock and 27.6% for both. Natural forests were the primary source of medicinal plants (61.84%). Crushing was the dominant preparation method (38.4%), and oral administration was the most common route (47.7%). The use of additives, antidotes, and localized dosage systems reflects advanced therapeutic knowledge. Rhamnus prinoides was the most preferred species for treating human tonsillitis, whereas Euphorbia abyssinica was widely used for livestock swelling. High ICF values (up to 0.92) indicated strong informant agreement, while JSI (2.29–45.19%) and RSI (0.00–16.67%) reflected largely localized ethnomedicinal knowledge; similarly, high fidelity levels for Asparagus africanus var. puberulus (83.3%), Rhamnus prinoides (75%), and Cucumis ficifolius and Euphorbia abyssinica (73.3%) underscore strong cultural consensus and priority for phytochemical validation. Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata was the highest-ranked multipurpose species but faces increasing anthropogenic threats. These findings emphasize the need for in situ and ex situ conservation and further phytochemical and pharmacological validation.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are presented in the tables and figures within the manuscript and supplementary file.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThe authors sincerely thank the Meketewa community members and key informants for generously sharing their invaluable knowledge of medicinal plants used for human and livestock healthcare. We are grateful to Dr. Getinet Masresha for his expert botanical identification of plant specimens. We also acknowledge the local authorities and community elders for their invaluable support and guidance during data collection.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Biology, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, EthiopiaFentaye Kassawmar, Endale Adamu, Worku Misganaw & Kindu GetaDepartment of Biology, Debark University, Debark, EthiopiaFentaye KassawmarAuthorsFentaye KassawmarView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarEndale AdamuView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarWorku MisganawView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarKindu GetaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsFK led data collection, analysis, and manuscript writing, while EA supervised fieldwork and plant identification. WM contributed to analyses, interpreting results, and manuscript writing. KG managed data curation. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Worku Misganaw.Ethics declarations

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval
Ethical approval was obtained from the Biology Department of Debre Tabor University and permissions from the Meketewa District administrative offices before data collection. All informants were informed about the study’s objectives and provided verbal consent prior to participation.

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleKassawmar, F., Adamu, E., Misganaw, W. et al. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Meketewa District, northwestern Ethiopia.
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KeywordsConservationIndigenous knowledgeHerbal medicineMedicinal plantsMeketewa DistrictVeterinary More

AbstractMicroplastics (MPs), increasingly common in freshwater ecosystems, pose serious ecological threats to the Formosan landlocked salmon (Oncorhynchus masou formosanus), an endangered salmonid endemic to Taiwan. This study presents the first comprehensive investigation into how seasonal variation and land-use patterns influence MP abundance, composition, and distribution in the salmon’s exclusive habitats within Shei-Pa National Park, Taiwan. Using µ‑FTIR spectroscopy and fluorescence microscopy, we quantified microplastic concentrations and observed higher levels in the dry season (48–93 items/L) than in the wet season (45–72 items/L). Principal component analysis (PCA) further indicated spatial gradients aligned with land‑use contrasts, with higher concentrations associated with intensive agriculture and recreational tourism relative to pristine forest areas. Seasonal variation profoundly influenced MPs’ composition, with synthetic fibers (Rayon and Polyester) predominating in the wet season and common plastic polymers (PET, PE, PP) increasing in the dry season. Smaller-sized MPs (< 25 µm), potentially more hazardous due to their capacity for trophic transfer, were predominant in upstream reaches during critical salmon breeding periods.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Download referencesFundingThe authors are appreciative of the Shei-Pa National Park, Taiwan for supporting this work with Grant No. PG11212-0178.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Safety, Health and Environmental Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City, 243303, Taiwan, ROCTsan-Yang Hu & Wen-Hui KuanR&D Center of Biochemical Engineering Technology, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City, 243303, Taiwan, ROCWen-Hui KuanChronic Diseases and Health Promotion Research Center, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Chiayi, 61363, Taiwan, ROCWen-Hui KuanAuthorsTsan-Yang HuView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarWen-Hui KuanView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsTsan-Yang Hu: Writing—original draft, Visualization, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis. Wen-Hui Kuan: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Investigation, Resources, Project administration, Supervision, Writing—review & editing.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Wen-Hui Kuan.Ethics declarations

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KeywordsFluorescence microscopyFormosan landlocked salmonMicroplastics (MPs)Seasonal dynamics
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AbstractBiodiversity Hotspots (Hotspots), harboring exceptionally rich small-ranged species, are critical for mitigating biodiversity loss. As priorities for terrestrial conservation, Hotspots increasingly face threats from agriculture, the largest anthropogenic disturbance impacting biodiversity. Yet, the spatial dynamics of agricultural expansion and its impacts on biodiversity, especially small-ranged vertebrates, remain poorly understood. Using site-level observations and satellite imagery, we found that agricultural pressures reduce species richness by 25.8%, total abundance by 12.4%, and rarefied species richness by 8.7% relative to primary vegetation within Hotspots. However, cropland area within Hotspots expanded 12% from 2000–2019, exceeding the global average of 9%. Fine-scale analysis identified 3,483 risk spots (cropland expansion and high small-ranged vertebrate richness, ~1741 Mha); ~1031 Mha of these areas fall outside Protected Areas, particularly in the Atlantic Forest, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats, Sri Lanka, and Sundaland. These results underscore the urgent need for targeted conservation actions to prevent biodiversity loss from agricultural expansion.

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Data availability

All underlying raw model data are publicly available online. Potapov et al’s cropland data are available at https://glad.umd.edu/dataset/croplands; the species richness data can be obtained from https://biodiversitymapping.org/index.php/download; the PREDICTS database can be obtained from https://data.nhm.ac.uk/dataset/the-2016-release-of-the-predicts-database-v1-1 and https://data.nhm.ac.uk/dataset/release-of-data-added-to-the-predicts-database-november-2022; Biodiversity Hotspots’ shapefile is available at https://zenodo.org/records/3261807. Other ancillary datasets are available at https://zenodo.org/records/17790423.
Code availability

All scripts for the data analyses and visualization are available upon request by contacting the corresponding authors.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThis research is supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2022YFF0802400). X. Xiao was supported by the research grants from the U.S. National Science Foundation (1911955, 2200310).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsCollege of Land Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, ChinaCan Yang & Geli ZhangInstitute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaJinwei Dong, Xi Zhang & Yuzhe LiUniversity of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaJinwei Dong & Xi ZhangDepartment of Earth and Environment and Kimberly Green Latin American and Caribbean Center, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USAClinton N. JenkinsCollege of Resources and Environment, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, ChinaZiqi MengInstitute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaKeping MaCollege of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, ChinaLei ZhaoDepartment of Geography and Conservation Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UKRachael D. GarrettDepartment of Geography and Environmental Systems, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, MD, USAErle C. EllisSchool of Biological Sciences, Center for Earth Observation and Modelling, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USAXiangming XiaoAuthorsCan YangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarJinwei DongView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarClinton N. JenkinsView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarXi ZhangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarYuzhe LiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarZiqi MengView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarKeping MaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarLei ZhaoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarRachael D. GarrettView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarErle C. EllisView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarXiangming XiaoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarGeli ZhangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsJ.D. and C.Y. conceptualized the study; C.Y. performed research, analyzed data, made the visualizations, and wrote the initial draft; C.Y., J.D., C.J., G.Z., X.Z., Y.L., Z.M., K.M., L.Z., R.G., E.E., and X.X. edited the paper.Corresponding authorsCorrespondence to
Jinwei Dong or Geli Zhang.Ethics declarations

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Abstract

Soil carbon sequestration is of great significance for achieving China’s 2060 carbon neutrality goal. However, differences in carbon sequestration between arid and humid regions remain unclear. Here, based on the Chinese terrestrial ecosystems carbon density dataset, this study employed the random forest (RF) model to map soil organic carbon density (SOCD) (1 km × 1 km) in arid and humid regions, and assessed the spatial uncertainty. The results indicated: (1) The RF model can explain about 79%-88% of SOCD variation in 2020. (2) The SOCD in arid regions (4.03 kg C m−2 in 0–20 cm soil depth, and 9.84 kg C m−2 in 0–100 cm), were significantly lower than those in humid regions (5.54 kg C m−2, and 12.91 kg C m−2), and had greater spatial heterogeneity. (3) In arid regions, SOCD was mainly driven by mean annual precipitation (MAP), mean annual temperature (MAT), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), soil moisture (SM), and land use and land cover (LULC). In humid regions, it was driven by MAT, MAP, elevation, human footprint, and LULC. (4) SOCD exhibited a decreasing trend in arid regions, but exhibited an increasing trend in humid regions under different climate scenarios. The results of this study are of great significance for exploring the response of the SOC pool to climate change in arid and humid regions, identifying vulnerable areas and carbon sinks, and scientifically formulating regional carbon management policies to achieve the goal of carbon neutrality.

Data availability

Data collected and analyzed in this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThe authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42171067), and the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2023YFD1901204).FundingDeclaration.This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42171067), and the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2023YFD1901204).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsKey Laboratory of Mountain Surface Processes and Ecological Regulation, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, 610041, ChinaBin Yang, Shihang Zhang & Xiaoguo WangUniversity of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, ChinaBin Yang & Shihang ZhangAuthorsBin YangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarShihang ZhangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarXiaoguo WangView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsB.Y.: Writing—review & editing, Writing—original draft, Visualization, Validation, Methodology, Supervision, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. S.Z.: Writing—review & editing, Writing—original draft, Validation, Supervision, Data curation, Conceptualization. X.W.: Writing—review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Xiaoguo Wang.Ethics declarations

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval
There was no ethical approval required for this study.

Additional informationPublisher’s noteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Supplementary InformationBelow is the link to the electronic supplementary material.Supplementary Material 1Supplementary Material 2Supplementary Material 3Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleYang, B., Zhang, S. & Wang, X. Spatial distributions, driving factors, and future changes of soil organic carbon in China: arid regions vs. humid regions.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32482-0Download citationReceived: 14 July 2025Accepted: 10 December 2025Published: 26 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32482-0Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsSoil organic carbonSpatial distributionDriving factorsDigital soil mappingArid regionHumid region More

AbstractRice (Oryza sativa L.) is a major dietary source of arsenic (As) for humans. Understanding the mechanisms of As accumulation in rice is essential for mitigating human exposure. However, the effects of environmental factors on As accumulation in rice have been insufficiently quantified under field conditions. To address these issues, we modeled temporal dynamics of As accumulation in rice plants and grains using a Bayesian state–space model (SSM). In this SSM, As concentrations in flag leaves and rice grains were treated as response variables, whereas four environmental factors, i.e., number of flooding days, temperature, crop evapotranspiration and precipitation, served as explanatory variables. The nonlinear effects of physiological factors were also incorporated into the SSM. The results indicated that among the four environmental factors, flooding days exerted the greatest positive effect on As accumulation in rice plants, with the effect peaking 5–10 days after heading. High temperatures and increased crop evapotranspiration promoted As accumulation, whereas increased precipitation reduced As accumulation. This work is among the first studies to quantify the effects of environmental factors on As accumulation in rice under field conditions, and the findings contribute to the development of region-specific cultivation guidelines for mitigating As exposure through rice.

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Data availability

The dataset and analysis code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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Satoru Ishikawa.Ethics declarations

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval
This study was conducted in accordance with all relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation. The rice plants used were common cultivated varieties grown in agricultural paddy fields, and no endangered or protected species were involved.

Additional informationPublisher’s noteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Supplementary InformationBelow is the link to the electronic supplementary material.Supplementary Material 1Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleIshito, K., Akahane, I., Kishi, S. et al. Unraveling effects of environmental factors on arsenic accumulation in rice under field conditions using a Bayesian state space model.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-33897-5Download citationReceived: 10 November 2025Accepted: 23 December 2025Published: 26 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-33897-5Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsArsenicRiceTime series analysisState–space modelBayesian statistics More

AbstractUnderstanding long-term land-use changes and their ecological consequences is essential for managing fragile artificial oasis systems in arid regions. This study analyzes annual land-use/land-cover (LULC) dynamics in the Alar Reclamation Area (northwestern China) from 1990 to 2019 using multi-temporal Landsat imagery, maximum NDVI composites, and a supervised SVM classifier. We produced annual LULC maps, quantified area changes and transition matrices, computed landscape pattern metrics (e.g., patch density, edge density), detected abrupt change points, and evaluated ecological risk using a landscape disturbance–vulnerability framework. Socioeconomic and climatic drivers (population, agricultural production value, cotton price, temperature and precipitation) were integrated to explain observed transformations and used in CA–Markov scenario simulations. Key findings: (1) cultivated land, orchards and construction land expanded substantially (net increases of 1147.2 km², 674.2 km² and 36.5 km², respectively), largely at the expense of unused land and natural vegetation; (2) a structural turning point occurred around 2005, associated with policy and market drivers; (3) landscape fragmentation increased, and ecological risk concentrated in reclamation belts adjacent to the Tarim River; (4) scenario simulations show that high-intensity development would markedly raise ecological risk, whereas conservation-oriented management can mitigate risk. The study identifies trade-offs between agricultural development and ecosystem stability, highlights salt-crust degradation and increased erosion as key ecological concerns, and provides spatially explicit evidence to inform land-use planning. Limitations include reliance on medium-resolution imagery and limited in-situ measurements; we therefore recommend future integration of higher-resolution imagery and process-based erosion monitoring.

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Data availability

The datasets used or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Lina Li.Ethics declarations

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional informationPublisher’s noteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleSong, Q., Li, L. Spatio-temporal land-use dynamics and landscape ecological risk assessment in an artificial oasis, Northwestern China.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32741-0Download citationReceived: 30 October 2025Accepted: 11 December 2025Published: 26 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32741-0Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsLand use changeArid regionLong time seriesDriving factors More

Abstract

Urbanization-induced soil degradation poses a significant threat to the structural resilience and functional capacity of croplands, with profound implications for sustainable agriculture and ecosystem stability. Despite increasing concern, there remains a critical gap in comprehensive, quantitative assessments of how urbanization affects key indicators of soil degradation. This study investigates the influence of urbanization on soil structural integrity, health, and degradation level in corn-cultivated agroecosystems by comparing urban and non-urban farms across four soil types. We developed a comprehensive soil degradation index (CSDI) using total dataset (CSDI-TDS) and a minimum dataset (CSDI-MDS) approaches to evaluate physical and chemical soil degradation indicators. Urban soils exhibited significantly higher soil erodibility (18–25% increase in the K-factor) and heavy metal accumulation (12–102% increase) compared to non-urban counterparts, signaling compromised soil structure and resilience. The average CSDI-TDS and CSDI-MDS scores were elevated by 14–21% and 16–22%, respectively, in urban soils, indicating a marked intensification of degradation linked to urban dynamics. Variables such as modified clay ratio (MCR), soil stability index (SSI), soil organic carbon (SOC), and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) were identified as primary indexes differentiating soil structural vulnerability in urban and non-urban settings. Corn productivity accounts for a relatively weak 22–25% of the variance in both the CSDI-MDS and CSDI-TDS, indicating a limited influence of CSDIs on crop performance. These findings highlight the utility of the CSDI, especially the CSDI-MDS, as a sensitive and responsive framework for assessing the impacts of urbanization on soil structural health and agroecosystem sustainability. This work contributes to the growing body of research aimed at reinforcing soil biophysical and chemical resilience under the dual pressures of land-use change and climate variability.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Download referencesFundingThe authors gratefully acknowledge Urmia University for the financial support of this research project.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsSoil Science Department, Urmia University, P.O. Box 165, Urmia, 57134, Islamic Republic of IranSalar RezapourDepartment of Research and Development, Thatcher Company, 1905 Fortune Road, Salt Lake City, UT, USAAmin NouriDepartment of Soil Science, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, IranMaedeh Shokohi & Parisa AlamdariAuthorsSalar RezapourView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarAmin NouriView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarMaedeh ShokohiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarParisa AlamdariView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsSalar Rezapour, Amin Nouri, and Parisa Alamdari wrote the main manuscript text and Maedeh Shokohi prepared Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. All authors reviewed the manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Salar Rezapour.Ethics declarations

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleRezapour, S., Nouri, A., Shokohi, M. et al. Urbanization accelerates soil degradation in peri-urban compared to rural farms.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-33995-4Download citationReceived: 30 September 2025Accepted: 23 December 2025Published: 26 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-33995-4Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsSoil healthSoil structureResilienceSoil degradationUrban soils More

AbstractThis study investigates interspecific and intraspecific variation in patellar morphology among the examined species of ruminants and explores whether these differences are consistent with their reported locomotor ecology. While the patella functions as a crucial lever during locomotion, the extent to which this relatively small bone reflects adaptive variation across species remains uncertain. This research aims to characterize patellar shape diversity in five selected ruminant species and to explore its potential functional implications within this limited comparative framework. A total of 352 patellae representing five ruminant species (Bos taurus, Bison bonasus, Ovis aries, Capra hircus, and Capreolus capreolus) belonging to the families Bovidae and Cervidae were digitized as three-dimensional models and analyzed using geometric morphometrics. Morphospace distributions, shape variation, and allometric relationships were assessed. Distinct patellar morphologies were observed among the examined species. Bos taurus formed a distinct cluster, whereas European bison (Bison bonasus) largely overlapped with the sheep cluster in shape space. Nevertheless, Bovids tended to exhibit relatively more medio-lateral expansion and more developed cartilaginous processes, consistent with greater weight-bearing demands and joint stability. In contrast, Capreolus capreolus and Capra hircus displayed slender, elongated patellae with reduced projections, a morphology that may be associated with agility and speed-related locomotor demands. Ovis aries occupied an intermediate morphospace, overlapping partially with both large and small ruminants. Procrustes ANOVA confirmed significant shape differences among the examined species, excluding sheep and goats. Allometric analyses revealed a strong association between patellar shape and centroid size in this dataset of five species. These findings demonstrate that, in the studied species, patellar morphology reflects an intricate interplay of functional adaptation, phylogenetic relatedness, and allometric scaling. Despite its small size, the patella may serve as an informative morphological marker of ecological and functional differentiation among ruminant species within the comparative framework examined here, and the patterns observed in this study may help generate hypotheses for broader comparative analyses in other ruminant taxa.

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Download referencesFundingThis study was funded by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK 1002- 124O782).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, 34320, TurkeyOya Kahvecioğlu, Burak Ünal, Ermiş Özkan, Gülsün Pazvant, Nazan Gezer İnce & Ozan GündemirDepartment of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Siirt University, Siirt, 56100, TurkeyBarış Can GüzelDepartment of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, 06110, TurkeyBarış Batur, Caner Bakıcı & Reşide Merih HazıroğluDepartment of Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, 34320, TurkeyZihni MutluDepartment of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, 55270, TurkeySedef Selviler SizerDepartment of Morphological Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, Warsaw, 02-776, PolandTomasz SzaraDepartment of Animal Anatomy, Histology and Pathomorphology, National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, UkraineOleksii O. MelnykOsteoarchaeology Practice and Research Centre, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, 34320, TurkeyOzan GündemirAuthorsOya KahvecioğluView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarBurak ÜnalView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarBarış Can GüzelView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarErmiş ÖzkanView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarBarış BaturView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarGülsün PazvantView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarNazan Gezer İnceView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarCaner BakıcıView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarZihni MutluView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarSedef Selviler SizerView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarTomasz SzaraView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarOleksii O. MelnykView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarReşide Merih HazıroğluView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarOzan GündemirView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsAll authors conceived and designed the study. B.Ü. and E.Ö. performed the landmark digitization. O.G., C.B. and T.S. conducted the statistical analyses. O.K., R.M.H. and O.G. served as project supervisors. B.C.G., B.B., C.B., Z.M., S.S.S., T.S., O.O.M. and R.M.H. contributed to 3D scanning and specimen collection. All authors contributed significantly to interpreting the data and results, and to writing and revising the manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Oleksii O. Melnyk.Ethics declarations

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleKahvecioğlu, O., Ünal, B., Güzel, B.C. et al. Patellar shape diversity as a functional indicator of locomotor specialization in selected ruminant species.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-33370-3Download citationReceived: 04 August 2025Accepted: 18 December 2025Published: 26 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-33370-3Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsAllometryFunctional morphologyLocomotor adaptationSpecies variation More