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To investigate whether vagrancy is associated with geomagnetic disturbance and solar activity, we developed a method for quantifying the relative vagrancy of spatiotemporal records for 152 North American landbird species (nfall = 150, nspring = 124). While vagrancy is often treated as a binary classification (i.e., an individual is either a vagrant or not) and then used as a discrete variable (i.e., a count of total vagrants in an area)16,18, here we calculated it as a continuous variable by combining two large-scale ornithological datasets—captures and encounters of individually marked birds from the USGS Bird Banding Lab (BBL)49 and weekly, species-specific abundance maps for the continental United States from the eBird Status and Trends (hereafter, eBird S&T; via the R package ‘ebirdst’, version 2.1.0)69. Banding records have the advantage over other potential databases of vagrancy records (such as eBird or rare bird lists) in that efforts are long-term, continent-wide, have limited false positives, and have only one record per individual. Additionally, eBird S&T has the advantage over static range maps in that they provide weekly predictions and incorporate relative abundance. With these two data sources, we constructed a species-specific vagrancy value (Fig. S1), that measures the spatiotemporal rarity for every banding record. Inclusion of all banding records rather than just rare records allowed for the analysis of the dispersion of whole species populations, mitigating the potential bias of effort in banding operations (i.e., more vagrant records with greater effort). We then used hierarchical Bayesian random-effects models to estimate the strength of the association between geomagnetic disturbance, solar activity, and avian vagrancy.Species data and inclusionWe considered all full—or partial-migrant landbird species with a breeding, non-breeding, or migratory range in the United States or Canada. To do this, we used species distribution maps accessed through Birds of the World70. Landbird species likely to be caught through banding efforts (excluding species like raptors, nightjars, and swifts) that regularly occur in  > 3 but  10 km. Each banding record included the date, latitude and longitude (and precision), species, and age (if known;71). Banding records were filtered to those captures that occurred during the species-specific migration period as defined by eBird S&T69. eBird S&T approximates stationary and migratory periods by determining when the distribution of whole species population is moving69. Our use of banding records within species-specific eBird S&T migratory periods was designed to maximize the proportion of migrant birds in the analysis, but likely excludes some early and late records of migrating individuals.Banding records of species that underwent taxonomic divisions or aggregations during the study period were eliminated if the date occurred during a period in which the species identity according to modern taxonomy is indeterminate (see Supplement 2). Taxonomic reclassifications were not considered when species divisions/aggregations would only affect records from outside North America, such as the split of a Southern American taxon, Chestnut-collared Swallow (Petrochelidon rufocollaris) from its North American counterpart, Cave Swallow (Petrochelidon fulva). In these cases, we assumed all banding records during the study period were of the North American species. For a full list of periods where species records were excluded, see Supplement 2. Species with  More

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