Ecology

Field site and treatment plots The experiment was established in the mountain birch forest-tundra ecotone at the Turku University Kevo Subarctic Research Institute (69°45.4′N, 27°00.5′E; altitude 104 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature −1.3 °C, mean annual precipitation 354 mm in reference years 1981–2010; data from Finnish Meteorological Institute) in 2016. Adult mountain birches were trimmed in the experimental […] More

1. Wang, Y. et al. The effects of the reverse seasonal flooding on soil texture within the hydro-fluctuation belt in the Three Gorges reservoir, China. J. Soils Sediment. 18, 109–115, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-017-1725-1 (2017). 2. Bejarano, M. D., Jansson, R. & Nilsson, C. The effects of hydropeaking on riverine plants: a review. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. […] More

1. Rosenblueth, M. & Martínez-Romero, E. Bacterial endophytes and their interactions with hosts. MPMI. 19, 827–837 (2006). 2. Hardoim, P. et al. The hidden world within plants: ecological and evolutionary considerations for defining functioning of microbial endophytes. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 79, 293–320 (2015). 3. Bringel, F. & Couée, I. Pivotal roles of phyllosphere microorganisms […] More

1. Attiwill, P. M. The disturbance of forest ecosystems: the ecological basis for conservative management. For. Ecol. Manage. 63, 247–300 (1994). Google Scholar 2. Folke, C. et al. Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem Management. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 35, 557–581 (2004). Google Scholar 3. Pickett, S. T. A. & White, P. S. […] More

1. Valkiunas, G. Avian malaria parasites and other Haemosporidia. (CRC Press, 2005). 2. Work, T. M. & Rameyer, R. A. Haemoproteus iwa n. sp. in Great Frigatebirds (Fregata minor [Gmelin]) from Hawaii: Parasite morphology and prevalence. J. Parasitol. 82, 489–491 (1996). 3. Padilla, L. R. et al. Health Assesment of seabirds on Isla Genovesa, Galapagos […] More

Experimental procedures Experiments were performed at three Camponotus japonicus colonies (denoted by A1, MS, and MG). An average distance between colonies was 131.7 m, and they were located at Seoul National University Gwanak campus (latitude = 37° 27′ N; longitude = 126° 57′ E). We conducted trials at MS, MG in 2016 and at A1 in […] More

Animal collection, characteristics and care For the experiments, we used a total of 24 P. elephas individuals of a wide range of sizes. Only inter-moult individuals with full sets of intact appendages were selected for this study. We carefully collected 17 juveniles by hand while scuba diving in the Bay of Perros Guirec (48°50′2.044″ N, 3°26′28.312″ […] More

Model A detailed model description is provided in the Supplementary methods. Here, we only illustrate the core equations. In the model, an individual’s potential growth rate (without neighbors) is defined as: $$frac{{dm}}{{dt}} = am^{frac{3}{4}}left[ {1 – S – left( {frac{m}{M}} right)^{frac{1}{4}}} right]$$ (1) where m is total mass, a is a species-specific constant, and M […] More