Ecology

I’m a conservation land manager at the Port of San Diego in California. My team and I aim to manage the tidelands around San Diego Bay, an area of more than 4,850 hectares, three-quarters of which is covered by water at high tide. At least 60% of the bay’s shoreline is ‘hardened’ — that is, it is edged with either a solid seawall or rip rap, piles of artificial boulders.To prevent erosion of the adjacent natural shoreline and restore wetlands, we’re participating in the San Diego Bay Native Oyster Living Shoreline project. As part of that, in December 2021, we placed 360 reef balls — depicted in this photograph from September this year — along 260 metres of shoreline to form the foundation of a native-oyster reef in the south bay. Here, I’m looking for oysters that have settled and are growing on the spheres.The reef balls are made out of ‘baycrete’, a concrete mixture made with local sand and the shells of farmed oysters. These attract wild oysters, which come to live there. We’re targeting the native Olympia oysters (Ostrea lurida), which can filter up to 190 litres of water per day. And sediment should accumulate behind the reef balls, encouraging the growth of eelgrass (Zostera marina). The grass is the foundation of the bay’s food chain.In a couple of years, native oysters will cover the reef balls, forming an artificial reef offshore. This reef will cause storm waves to break farther from the shoreline, protecting the adjacent salt marsh. Just inland from this area is a wetlands habitat refuge for the endangered California least tern (Sternula antillarum browni), and many birds are already hopping onto the reef balls and eating what’s living there.Living shorelines are an important part of sequestering carbon to combat climate change — both eelgrass and oysters store a lot of carbon. The reef balls are win–win–win. I often joke that we’re trying to save the planet one acre (0.4 hectares) at a time. More

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Maestre and colleagues collected data using a standardized field survey at 98 sites across 25 countries and 6 continents, fitted linear mixed models to data from all sites and grazing pressure levels, and then applied a multimodel inference procedure to select the set of best-fitting models. The authors found interactions between grazing and biodiversity in almost half of the best-fitting models, where increasing grazing pressure had positive effects on ecosystem services in colder sites with high plant species richness. However, increases in grazing pressure at warmer sites with high rainfall seasonality and low plant species richness interacted with soil properties to either increase or reduce the delivery of multiple ecosystem services. The authors’ findings highlight how increasing herbivore richness could enhance ecosystem service delivery across contrasting environmental and biodiversity conditions, enhancing soil carbon storage and reducing the negative impacts of increased grazing pressure. More

Trichoderma species collectionEighty strains were obtained from 100 soil samples collected from Zoige alpine wetland ecological regions in China. Details of the strains isolated from soil samples are given in Table 1. All strains were subsequently used for morphological identification, while fifty-seven were used for phylogenetic analysis.Table 1 Details of 80 Trichoderma isolates from the Zoige alpine wetland in this study.Full size tablePhylogenetic analysisThe ITS region used preliminarily as a species identification criterion was applied to TrichOKey at www.ISTH.info70. However, the ITS region has a low number of variable sites and long insertions in certain species; thus, it is unsuitable for a phylogenetic reconstruction of this group41. Our study successfully amplified most fragments of the genes tef1, rpb2, and acl1. We also designed a pair of new primers based on the full-length tef1 gene, 5′-GAGAAGTTCGAGAAGGTGAGC-3′ and 5′-ATGTCACGGACGGCGAAAC-3′, with which a 1.4-kb fragment was amplified for most isolates.All samples analyzed in our study were divided into 4 primary clades based on the gpd gene region, including 49 strains from the T. harzianum complex, 3 T. rossicum strains, 1 T. polysporum strain and one unknown species (4 Trichoderma sp. strains) (Fig. 1). Maximum parsimony analysis was conducted among 101 strains, with Protocrea farinosa (CPK 2472) and P. pallida (CBS 299.78) used as outgroup (Table 2). The dataset for the rpb2, tef1 and acl1 genes contained 3403 characteristics, among which 1152 were parsimony-informative, 988 were variable and parsimony-uninformative, and 1263 were constant. The most parsimonious trees are shown in Fig. 2 (tree length = 5054, consistency index = 0.6005, homoplasy index = 0.3995, retention index = 0.8105, rescaled consistency index = 0.4867).Figure 1Neighbor-joining tree based on partial gpd gene sequences from 57 Trichoderma isolates. Parsimony bootstrap values of more than 50% are shown at nodes.Full size imageTable 2 Trichoderma strain included in the multi-gene sequence analysis, with details of clade, strain number, location, and GenBank accessions of the sequences generated.Full size tableFigure 2Maximum parsimony tree of Trichoderma species inferred from the combined rpb2, tef1 and acl1 partial sequences. Maximum parsimony bootstrap values above 50% are shown at nodes. The tree was rooted with Protocrea farinose and P. pallida Isolates from this study are shown in red (new species in bold).Full size imageThe phylogram showed that 57 stains belonged to the following four clades: Harzianum, Polysporum, Stromaticum, and Longibrachiatum. The strains of the first three clades with neighboring named species were well supported by bootstrap values greater than 90%. The Harzianum clade contained T. alni, T. atrobrunneum, T. harzianum and T. pyramidale of the Trichoderma species complex. The Polysporum clade contained only T. polysporum, and the Stromaticum clade contained T. rossicum. The Longibrachiatum clade contained four strains of Trichoderma sp., T25, T43, T44 and T48, which were separated from any other known taxa of this clade showed a low bootstrap value (MPBP = 62%) with T. citrinoviride and T. saturnisporum. We thus regarded it as a new species and named it Trichoderma zoigense, as described in the next section.Growth ratesAs shown in Fig. 3, the genus Trichoderma from Zoige alpine wetland ecological regions was able to grow in a range from 15 to 35 °C, and the suitable growth temperature for most species ranged from 20 to 30 °C. All seven species identified had normal viability at relatively low temperature (15 °C), and they rarely grew well over 35 °C except for T. zoigense. For T. atrobrunneum, T. harzianum and T. pyramidale, the optimum growth temperature on CMD was 25 to 30 °C. T. alni and T. rossicum preferred a cool growth environment, with an optimum temperature of 25 °C, whereas T. zoigense was more partial to a hot environment, with an optimum temperature of 30 °C, and it even grew well up to 35 °C. T. polysporum was the only slow-growing species that grew with less than 6.0 mm/day between 15 and 30 °C and did not survive at 35 °C. The above results showed that all species had different growth rates but were not completely differentiated from each other on CMD. These species were roughly divided into four groups based on their optimum growth temperature.Figure 3Growth rates of 7 species of Trichoderma on CMD given as mm per day at five temperatures. The values were the means of 3–5 experiments, with 1–3 representative isolates per species.Full size imageRelationship with ecological factorsOur results revealed a substantial disparity in the number and distribution of Trichoderma species among Zoige alpine wetland ecological regions (Tables 3, 4). Table 3 showed that T. harzianum was found in all four soil types, but most isolates of this species were obtained from peat soil. T. rossicum, T. alni and T. zoigense were also present in meadow soil and subalpine meadow soil, whereas T. atrobrunneum was found in aeolian sandy soil and peat soil. T. polysporum was found only in peat soil.Table 3 Isolation frequency of Trichoderma species in different soil types (%).Full size tableTable 4 Isolation frequency of Trichoderma species in different soil layers (%) species.Full size tableIn regard to the different soil layers shown in Table 4, T. harzianum was widely distributed in the five soil layers at depths of 0–100 cm. T. rossicum, T. alni and T. zoigense were isolated mainly from the soil layers at depths of 0–50 cm. Both T. atrobrunneum and T. pyramidale were isolated from depths of 0–10 cm, and T. polysporum was found only in the soil layers at depths of 50–100 cm.Regarding isolation frequency, T. harzianum was the most common of the seven species with a 23% isolation frequency, and it was therefore the dominant species in the zone, while the rare species T. polysporum and T. pyramidale had the lowest isolation frequencies at 1%.TaxonomyNew speciesTrichoderma zoigense G.S. Gong & G.T. Tang, sp. nov. (Fig. 4).Figure 4Cultures and asexual morph of Trichoderma zoigense. (a–d). Cultures at 20 °C [(a) on CMD, 7 days; (b) on MEA, 4 days; (c) on PDA, 4 days; and (d) on SNA, 7 days]. (e) Conidiation tuft (CMD, 4 days). (f–k) Conidiophores and phialides (CMD, 5–7 days). (l) Chlamydospores (PDA, 8 days). (m) Conidia (CMD, 5 days). Scale bars: (e) = 2 mm; (f–m) = 10 μm.Full size imageMycoBank: MB 82114.Typification: CHINA. SICHUAN PROVINCE: Zoige Alpine Wetland, on soil, 29 June 2013, G.S. Gong T44 (holotype CGMCC3.20145). GenBank: ITS = KX632531; TEF = KX632588; RPB2 = KX632645; ACL1 = KX632702; GPD = KX632759.Etymology: zoigense (Latin), the specific epithet about the place where the type was found.Description: Cultures and anamorph: optimal growth at 25 °C on all four media. On CMD after 72 h, growth is 25–28 mm at 20 °C and 28–31 mm at 25 °C. Colony is dense and has a wavy to crenate margin. Surface becomes distinctly zonate and white to grayish-green but celadon to atrovirens later, and it is granular in the center and distinctly radially downy outside and shows whitish surface hyphae and reverse-diffusing croci to pale brown pigment (Fig. 4a). Aerial hyphae are numerous to punctate and long, forming radial strands, with white mycelial patches appearing in aged cultures (Fig. 4e). Autolytic excretions are rare, with no coilings observed. Conidiation was noted after 3–4 d at 25 °C, a yellow or greenish color appears after 7 days, conidiation is effuse, and in intense tufts, erect conidiophores occur around the plug and on aerial hyphae. They are mainly concentrated along the colony center, show a white color that turns green, and then finally degenerate, with conidia often adhering in chains. Conidiophores are short and simple with asymmetric branches. Branches produce phialides directly. Phialides are generally solitary along main axes and side branches and sometimes paired in the terminal position of the main axes, sometimes in whorls of 2–3. Phialides are 4.5–10.5 × 2–5 μm ((overline{x }) = 7.5 ± 1.5 × 3 ± 0.5, n = 50) and 1.5–2.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 2 ± 0.2) wide at the base, lageniform or ampulliform, mostly uncinate or slightly curved, less straight, and often distinctly widened in the middle (Fig. 4f–k). Conidia are 3–4.5 × 2.3–4 μm ((overline{x }) = 3.5 ± 0.3 × 3 ± 0.3, n = 50) and initially hyaline, and they turn green and are oblong or ellipsoidal, almost with constricted sides, and smooth, eguttulate or with minute guttules, with indistinct scars (Fig. 4m).On PDA, after 72 h, growth is 35–41 mm at 20 °C and 50–55 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 5 days at 25 °C. Colonies are dense with wavy to crenate margins; and mycelia are conspicuously differentiated in width of the primary and secondary hyphae. Surface becomes distinctly zonate, yellowish-green to prasinous in color and celadon to atrovirens later, and it is farinose to granular in the center, distinctly radially downy outside, with whitish of surface hyphae and reverse-diffusing brilliant yellow to fruit-green pigment (Fig. 4c). Aerial hyphae are numerous, long and ascend several millimeters, forming radial strands, with white mycelial patches appearing in aged cultures. Autolytic excretions are rare; and no coilings are observed. Odor is indistinct or fragrant. Chlamydospores examined after 7 days at 4.5–9 × 4.5–7.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 6 ± 1.1 × 6 ± 0.7, n = 50), and they are terminal, intercalary, globose or ellipsoidal, and smooth (Fig. 4l). Conidiation is noted after 3–4 days and yellow or greenish after 7 days. Conidiophores are short and simple with asymmetric branches; conidia are greenish, ellipsoidal, and smooth.On SNA, after 72 h, growth is 13–15 mm at 20 °C and, 16–21 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 12–13 days at 25 °C. Colony is similar to that on CMD, with a little wave margin, although mycelia are looser and slower on the agar surface. Aerial hyphae are relatively inconspicuous and long along the colony margin. Autolytic activity and coiling are absent or inconspicuous. No diffusing pigment or distinct odor are produced (Fig. 4d). Conidiation was noted after 3–4 days at 25 °C, and many amorphous, loose white or aqua cottony tufts occur, mostly median from the plug outwards, and they are confluent to masses up and white but then turn green. After 4–5 days, conidiation becomes dense within the tufts, which are loose at their white margins with long, straight, or slightly sinuous sterile ends in the periphery. Tufts consisting of a loose reticulum with branches often at right angles, give rise to several main axes. Main axes are regular and tree-like, with few or many paired or unpaired side branches. Branches are flexuous, and phialides are solitary along the main axes and side branches, and they are sometimes paired in the terminal position of the main axes, sometimes in whorls of 2–3 that are often cruciform or in pseudo-whorls up to 4. Phialides and conidia are similar to that on CMD.New records for ChinaTrichoderma atrobrunneum F. B. Rocha et al., Mycologia 107: 571, 2015 (Fig. 5).Figure 5Cultures and asexual morph of Trichoderma atrobrunneum. (a–d) Cultures at 25 °C [(a) on CMD, 7 days; (b) on MEA, 4 days; (c) on PDA, 15 days; and (d) on SNA, 7 days]. (e) Conidiation tuft (SNA, 7 days). (f–i,k,l) Conidiophores and phialides (CMD, 5–7 days). (j) Conidia (CMD, 6 days). (m) Chlamydospores (PDA, 7 days). Scale bars: (e) = 2 mm; (f–m) = 10 μm.Full size imageSpecimen examined: CHINA. SICHUAN PROVINCE: Zoige Alpine Wetland, on soil, 29 June 2013, G.S. Gong T42 (holotype CGMCC.20167). GenBank: ITS = KX632514; TEF = KX632571; RPB2 = KX632628; ACL1 = KX632685; GPD = KX632742.Description: Cultures and anamorph: optimal growth at 25 °C on all media. On CMD, after 72 h, growth is 35–37 mm at 20 °C and 46–53 mm at 25 °C; mycelium covers the plate after 5–6 days at 25 °C. Colonies show distinct zonation. Mycelia are loose and thin; hyphae are narrow, sinuous and often form strands on the margin (Fig. 5a). Aerial hyphae are slight, forming a thin white to green downy fluffy or floccose mat. The light brown or brown pigment is observed, with no distinct odor noted. Conidiophores are pyramidal, often with opposing and somewhat widely spaced branches, with the main axis and each branch terminating in a cruciate, sometimes verticillate, whorl of up to four phialides. Phialides are ampulliform to lageniform and 4.9–7.6 × 2.2–3.0 μm ((overline{x }) = 6 ± 0.7 × 2.5 ± 0.2, n = 50) and 1.5–2.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 1.5 ± 0.3) wide at the base (Fig. 5f–i,k,l). Conidia are 2.5–4 × 2.5–3.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 3 ± 0.3 × 3 ± 0.2, n = 50), yellow to green, smooth, and circular to ellipsoidal (Fig. 5j).On PDA, after 72 h, growth is 41–43 mm at 20 °C and 50–55 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 5–6 days at 25 °C. Colonies show indistinct zonation. Mycelia are dense, opaque, and thick; hyphae are wide, sinuous and often form strands on the margin (Fig. 5c). Margin is thick and defined. Aerial hyphae are abundant and form a thick green downy mat. Conidiation forms abundantly within 4 days in broad concentric rings. Chlamydospores examined after 7 days are 5–9 × 5.5–8.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 6.5 ± 0.9 × 6.5 ± 0.9, n = 30), globose when terminal, smooth, and intercalary (Fig. 5m).On SNA, after 72 h, growth is 33–35 mm at 20 °C and 38–40 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 7–8 days at 25 °C. Colonies show distinct zonation. Mycelia are thin and yellow to green; hyphae are wide and sinuous, with indistinct strands on the margin (Fig. 5d). Margin is thin and ill-defined. Aerial hyphae are slight, forming a thin green downy fluff appearing in the colony (Fig. 5e). Diffusing pigment was observed in a ring, and no distinct odor was noted. Conidiation is similar to CMD.Accepted species previously reported in ChinaTrichoderma alni Jaklitsch, Mycologia 100: 799. 2008 (Fig. 6).Figure 6Cultures and asexual morph of Trichoderma alni. (a–d). Cultures after 7 days at 25 °C [(a) on CMD; (b) on MEA; (c) on PDA; and (d) on SNA]. € Coilings of aerial hyphae (PDA, 6 days). (f–j,l). Conidiophores and phialides (CMD, 5–7 days). (k) Conidiation tuft (PDA, 7 days). (m) Conidia (CMD, 6 days). (n,o) Chlamydospores (PDA, 7 days). Scale bars: (e–j,l–o) = 10 μm; (k) = 2 mm.Full size imageDescription: Cultures and anamorph: Optimum growth at 25 °C on all media; no growth at 35 °C. On CMD, after 72 h, growth of 34–36 mm at 20 °C and 50–51 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 5–6 days at 25 °C. Colonies show distinct zonation. Mycelia are loose and thin; hyphae are narrow and sinuous and often form strands on the margin (Fig. 6a). Aerial hyphae are slight and form a thin white to green downy, fluffy or floccose mat. No diffusing pigment or distinct odor is noted. Conidiophores are hyaline and thick, with side branches on several levels at the base of the elongations that are mostly paired and in right angles with phialides in whorls of 3–5. Phialides are 5.5–11.5 × 2–3.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 8 ± 1.4 × 2.5 ± 0.4, n = 50) and 1.5–2.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 2 ± 0.4) wide at the base, often short and wide, and ampulliform (Fig. 6f–j,l). Conidia are 3–4 × 2.5–3.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 3.5 ± 0.2 × 3 ± 0.2, n = 50), dark green, smooth, and ellipsoidal (Fig. 6m).On PDA, after 72 h, growth is 33–35 mm at 20 °C and 41–43 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 6–7 days at 25 °C. Colonies show indistinct zonation. Mycelia are dense, opaque, and thick; hyphae are wide, sinuous and often form strands on the margin (Fig. 6c). Margin is thin and ill defined. Aerial hyphae are slight, coiled (Fig. 6e), forming a thin white to green downy, fluffy or floccose mat (Fig. 6k). Chlamydospores examined after 7 days are 6–9.5 × 5–8 μm ((overline{x }) = 7.5 ± 0.9 × 7 ± 0.9, n = 30), globose to oval when terminal, and smooth, and few are intercalary (Fig. 6n,o).On SNA, after 72 h, growth is 18–19 mm at 20 °C and 28–32 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 6–7 days at 25 °C. Colonies show distinct zonation. Mycelia are thin and yellow to green; hyphae are wide and sinuous and show indistinct strands on the margin (Fig. 6d). Margin is thin and ill-defined. Aerial hyphae are slight and form a thin white downy, fluffy, or floccose mat appearing in distal parts of the colony. No diffusing pigment or distinct odor was noted. Conidiation is similar to CMD.Trichoderma harzianum Rifai, Mycol. Pap. 116: 38, 1969 (Fig. 7).Figure 7Cultures and asexual morph of Trichoderma harzianum. (a–d) Cultures after 7 days at 20 °C [(a) on CMD; (b) on MEA; (c) on PDA; and (d) on SNA]. (e) Conidiation tuft (CMD, 7 days). (f–j) Conidiophores and phialides (CMD, 5–7 days). (k) Conidia (CMD, 5 days). (l,m) Chlamydospores (PDA, 7 days). Scale bars: (e) = 2 mm; (f–m) = 10 μm.Full size imageDescription: Cultures and anamorph: optimal growth at 25 °C on all media. On CMD, after 72 h, growth is 34–38 mm at 20 °C and 46–53 mm at 25 °C; mycelium covers the plate after 5–6 days at 25 °C. Colonies show distinct zonation. Mycelia are loose and thin; hyphae are narrow, sinuous, and often form strands on the margin (Fig. 7a). Aerial hyphae are abundant and radiating and form thick green downy, fluffy, or floccose mats (Fig. 7e). No diffusing pigment, but fragrant odor noted. Conidiophores are pyramidal with opposing branches, with each branch terminating in a cruciate whorl of up to four or five phialides. Phialides are frequently solitary or in a whorl of three or four. Phialides are ampulliform to lageniform and often constricted below the tip to form a narrow neck of 4.5–8 × 2–3.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 6 ± 0.8 × 2.5 ± 0.3, n = 50) and 1–2.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 2 ± 0.3) wide at the base (Fig. 7f–j). Conidia are subglobose to ovoid, 3–4.5 × 2.5–3.3 μm ((overline{x }) = 3.5 ± 0.3 × 3 ± 0.2, n = 50), laurel-green to bright green, smooth, and ellipsoidal (Fig. 7k).On PDA, after 72 h, growth is 41–43 mm at 20 °C and 50–55 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 5–6 days at 25 °C. Colonies show distinct zonation. Mycelia are dense, opaque, and thick; hyphae are wide and sinuous and often form strands on the margin (Fig. 7c). Margin is thick and ill defined. Aerial hyphae are abundant and radiating and form thick green downy, fluffy or floccose mats. Chlamydospores examined after 7 days are 5.5–9 × 5.5–9.0 μm ((overline{mathrm{x} }) = 7 ± 0.8 × 7 ± 0.8, n = 30), globose to oval when terminal and smooth, showing an almost unobserved intercalary (Fig. 7l,m).On SNA, after 72 h, growth is 33–35 mm at 20 °C and 38–40 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 7–8 days at 25 °C. Colonies show distinct zonation. Mycelia are thin and green; hyphae are narrow and sinuous and show indistinct strands on the margin (Fig. 7d). Margin is thin and ill defined. Aerial hyphae are slight and form a thick downy, fluffy, or floccose mat appearing in the colony. No diffusing pigment or distinct fragrant odor was noted. Conidiation was similar to CMD.Trichoderma polysporum Rifai, Mycol. Pap. 116: 18, 1969 (Fig. 8).Figure 8Cultures and asexual morph of Trichoderma polysporum. (a–d) Cultures at 20 °C [(a) on CMD, 7 days; (b) on MEA, 15 days; (c) on PDA, 15 days; and (d) on SNA, 15 days]. (i) Conidiation tuft (PDA, 15 days). (e–h,j) Conidiophores and phialides (CMD, 5–7 days). (k) Chlamydospores (CMD, 7 days). (l) Conidia (PDA, 6 days). Scale bars: (i) = 2 mm; (e–h,j) = 10 μm.Full size imageDescription: Cultures and anamorph: optimal growth at 20 °C on all media, no growth at 35 °C. On CMD, after 72 h, growth is 14–16 mm at 20 °C and 9–12 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 9–10 days at 20 °C. A colony is hyaline, thin and loose, with little mycelium on the agar surface, and it is indistinctly zonate but becomes zonate by conidiation in white tufts after 4–5 d and grass green to green after 6 days (Fig. 8a). Aerial hyphae are long and dense and forming little greenish aggregates that are granular to pulvinate. No pigment or odor. Conidiation noted after 4–5 days, and it is white to greenish, with sterile smooth to rough helical elongations in the distal zones from pustules. Conidiophores are hyaline and thick with side branches on several levels at the base of the elongations that are mostly paired and at right angles with phialides in whorls of 2–5. Phialides are 5–10.5 × 2.5–4 μm ((overline{x }) = 7 ± 1.9 × 3.5 ± 0.4, n = 50) and 2–4 μm ((overline{x }) = 3 ± 0.5) wide at the base, often short and wide and ampulliform (Fig. 8e–h,j). Conidia are 2.5–4 × 2–3 μm ((overline{x }) = 3.5 ± 0.4 × 2.5 ± 0.2, n = 50), hyaline, smooth, and ellipsoidal (Fig. 10l).On PDA, after 72 h, growth is 24–26 mm at 20 °C and 13–16 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 8–9 days at 20 °C. A colony is densest, distinctly zonate, and grass green to spearmint green; mycelia are conspicuously dense; and surface hyphae form radial strands (Fig. 8c). Aerial hyphae are long and dense and form greenish aggregates that are granular to pulvinate (Fig. 8i). No diffusing pigment and odor. Chlamydospores examined after 7 days are 5.5–9 × 5–7.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 7 ± 0.9 × 6 ± 0.6, n = 30), globose to oval when terminal, and smooth, with an almost unobserved intercalary (Fig. 8k).On SNA, growth is approximately 7 mm/day at 20 °C and 5 mm/day at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 10 days at 20 °C. A colony is hyaline, thin, and loose, with little mycelium on the agar surface, not or indistinctly zonate, but becomes zonate by conidiation in white tufts after 4–5 days; and the margin is downy by long aerial hyphae, which degenerating/dissolving soon (Fig. 8d).Trichoderma pyramidale W. Jaklitsch & P. Chaverri, Mycologia 107: 581, 2015 (Fig. 9).Figure 9Cultures and asexual morph of Trichoderma pyramidale. (a–d) Cultures at 25 °C [(a) on CMD, 7 days; (b) on MEA, 4 days; (c) on PDA, 4 days; and (d) on SNA, 4 days]. (e) Conidiation tuft (PDA, 7 days). (f–j) Conidiophores and phialides (CMD, 5–7 days). (k) Conidia (CMD, 6 days). (l) Chlamydospores (PDA, 7 days). Scale bars: (e) = 2 mm; (f–l) = 10 μm.Full size imageDescription: Cultures and anamorph: optimal growth at 25 °C on all media, with little growth at 35 °C. On CMD, after 72 h, growth is 29–32 mm at 20 °C and 48–53 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 5–6 days at 25 °C. Colonies show distinct zonation. Mycelium is loose and thin; hyphae are narrow, sinuous, and often form strands on the margin (Fig. 9a). Aerial hyphae are slight, forming a thin white to green downy, fluffy or floccose mat. Brown pigment is shown, but no distinct odor noted. Conidiophores are hyaline and thick with side branches on several levels at the base of the elongations that are mostly paired and at right angles with phialides in whorls of 3–5. Phialides are 5–9.5 × 2.5–3 μm ((overline{x }) = 7 ± 1.1 × 3 ± 0.3, n = 50) and 1–2.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 1.5 ± 0.3) wide at the base and often short, wide, and ampulliform (Fig. 9f–j). Conidia are 2.5–4 × 2.5–3.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 3.5 ± 0.3 × 3 ± 0.2, n = 50), green, smooth, and ellipsoidal (Fig. 9k).On PDA, after 72 h, growth is 41–43 mm at 20 °C and 50–55 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 5–6 days at 25 °C. Colonies show indistinct zonation. Mycelia are dense, opaque, and thick; hyphae are wide, sinuous and often form strands on the margin (Fig. 9c). Margin is thin and ill defined. Aerial hyphae are slight and form a thin white to green downy, fluffy or floccose mat (Fig. 9e). Chlamydospores examined after 7 days are 5.5–10 × 5.5–10 μm ((overline{x }) = 7 ± 0.9 × 7 ± 0.9, n = 30), globose to oval when terminal or intercalary, and smooth (Fig. 9l).On SNA, after 72 h, growth is 33–35 mm at 20 °C and 38–40 mm at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 7–8 days at 25 °C. Colonies show distinct zonation. Mycelium is thin, yellow to green; hyphae are wide, sinuous, with indistinct strands on the margin (Fig. 9d). Margin is thin and ill defined. Aerial hyphae are slight and form a thin white downy, fluffy or floccose mat in distal parts of the colony. No diffusing pigment or distinct odor noted. Conidiation similar to CMD.Trichoderma rossicum Bissett et al., Canad. J. Bot. 81: 578, 2003 (Fig. 10).Figure 10Cultures and asexual morph of Trichoderma rossicum. (a–d) Cultures after 7 days at 25 °C [(a) on CMD; (b) on MEA; (c) on PDA; and (d) on SNA]. € Conidiation tuft (PDA, 7 days). (f–h,j,k) Conidiophores and phialides (CMD, 5–7 days). (i) Elongations (CMD, 6 days). (l,n) Conidia (CMD, 6 days). (m) Chlamydospores (PDA, 7 days). Scale bars: (e) = 2 mm; (f–n) = 10 μm.Full size imageDescription: Cultures and anamorph: optimal growth at 25 °C on all media. On CMD, growth of 10–11 mm/day at 20 °C and 15–17 mm/day at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 6–7 days at 20 °C. Colony is dense with a wavy margin, and the surface becomes distinctly zonate (Fig. 10a). Aerial hyphae are numerous, long, elongate, and villiform in the plate (Fig. 10i). No diffusing pigment or odor. Autolytic activity is variable, and coilings are scarce or inconspicuous. Conidiation noted after 3–4 days at 20 °C. Conidiation is effuse and in intense tufts that are hemispherical or irregular, and they show wide wheel grain banding that is gray green to deep green. Conidiophores radiate from the reticulum and are broad, straight, sinuous or helically twisted, show distally slightly pointed elongations, taper from the main axes to top branches, and present primary branches arranged in pairs or in whorls of 2–3, with secondary branches to solitary. Phialides are 4.5–14 × 2.5–4 μm ((overline{x }) = 7 ± 1.5 × 3.5 ± 0.3, n = 50) and 2–3.5 μm ((overline{x }) = 3 ± 0.4) wide at the base, ampulliform, and in whorls of 3–6 (Fig. 10f–h,j,k). Conidia are 3.5–5.5 × 2.5–4 μm ((overline{x }) = 4.5 ± 0.5 × 3 ± 0.2, n = 50), short cylindrical, and a gray color when single and pea green to yellow green in a group (Fig. 10l,n).On PDA, growth is 12–15 mm/day at 20 °C, 12–16 mm/day at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 4–5 days at 25 °C. Colony is denser with a wavy margin than that on CMD, and the surface is distinctly zonate (Fig. 10c). Aerial hyphae are numerous, long, and villiform to pulvinate in the plate. No diffusing pigment and odor (Fig. 10e). Autolytic activity is variable, coilings are scarce or inconspicuous. Chlamydospores examined after 7 days are 6.5–9.5 × 6–9 μm ((overline{x }) = 7 ± 1.0 × 7 ± 0.9, n = 30), terminal and intercalary, globose or ellipsoidal, and smooth (Fig. 10m).On SNA, growth is 8–13 mm/day at 20 °C and 8–12 mm/day at 25 °C; and mycelium covers the plate after 6–7 day at 25 °C. Colony is hyaline, thin and dense; and mycelium degenerate rapidly (Fig. 10d). Aerial hyphae are inconspicuous, autolytic activity is scant, and coilings are distinct. Conidiation noted after approximately 4 days and starts in white fluffy tufts spreading from the center to form concentric zones, and they compact to pustules with a white to greenish color. More

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