Ecology

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The structure and microstructure of the fibresThe surfaces of the natural fibres are presented from Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and of the synthetic fibres are presented in Figs. 11 and 12.Figure 6SEM of jute fibre [Fot.M.Kurpińska].Full size imageFigure 7SEM of bamboo fibre [Fot.M.Kurpińska].Full size imageFigure 8SEM of sisal fibre [Fot.M.Kurpińska].Full size imageFigure 9SEM of cotton fibre [Fot.M.Kurpińska].Full size imageFigure 10SEM of ramie fibre [Fot.M.Kurpińska].Full size imageFigure 11SEM of polymer fibre [Fot.M.Kurpińska].Full size imageFigure 12SEM of polypropylene (PP) fibre [Fot.M.Kurpińska].Full size imageThe basic components of natural fibres influencing their properties are cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, waxes, oils, and pectin. Cellulose is mainly composed of three elements such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and it is the material basis that forms the cell wall natural fibre. Typically, cellulose remains in the form of micro-fibrils within the cell wall of a plant. Cellulose is the main factor affecting the tensile strength along natural fibre and the cellulose content is closely related to the plant’s age and content decreases with the increasing age of the plant6.Hemicellulose is an amorphous substance offering a low degree of polymerization and it exists between fibres. Hemicellulose is a complex polysaccharide with xylan as the predominant chain, and the branches mainly include 4-O-methyl-D-glucuronic acid, L-arabinose, and D-xylose. Lignin is a kind of polymer with complex structures and of many types. The basic units of lignin include: guaiacyl, syringyl monomers, and p-hydroxyphenyl monomers. The structural units in lignin are mainly connected by ether bonds and carbon–carbon single bonds. Usually, lignin is not evenly distributed in the plant fibre wall9.In addition to three main components, lignin often contains various sugars, fats, protein substances, and a small amount of ash elements. These chemical compositions affect not only the properties of natural fibres, but also the possibility of a specific application of fibre. The composition of individual natural fibres and their properties are presented in Table 1. Figure 6a–c shows longitudinal and cross-sectional views of the untreated jute fibre. Externally, the fibre is smooth and shiny. The presence of hemicellulose influences the high hygroscopicity of jute fibres. The structure of the jute fibre shows that the fibre swells when it absorbs water. Possible swelling of the fibre in the cross-section by approx. 30%. The microscope scans of indicate the succinylated regions. This is due to the chemical bonding of the succinic anhydride molecule with the hydroxyl group of the cellulose present in the fibre. The encircled region in the top side shows an unsuccinylated region with naturally waxy impurities16.Figure 7a shows the scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of the bamboo fibre. According to the SEM analysis, the microstructure of bamboo is anisotropic. At the Fig. 7b–c it can be recognized that the orientation of cellulose fibrils was placed almost along the fibre axis which may affect to maximize the modulus of elasticity. Factors affect the mechanical properties of bamboo fibres are the chemical composition and structure of bamboo fibres, moisture content, age of bamboo, etc. In addition, the age of the plant affects the chemical composition and structure of fibre. These factors and the natural humidity influence their change of mechanical properties. The hemicellulose content directly influences the tensile strength. This parameter increases with the decrease in the hemicellulose content in the bamboo fibre18.The cell structure of bamboo fibres is complex, and the middle layer of the cell wall has a multi-layer structure. The lignification of the thin and thick layers in the multilayer structure varies. The multi-layered cell wall structure leads to better fracture resistance and promotes internal sliding between the cell wall layers during tension. The angle of the microfiber alignment is also an important factor influencing the mechanical properties of the fibre. Typically, the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of a fibre increase as the angle between the interposition of the microfibers decreases. Hence, the smaller microfibril angle is an important factor that contributes to the good mechanical properties of bamboo fibre. Large voids between bamboo fibre molecules can be seen, which impact good hygroscopicity19. The moisture content is an important factor affecting the mechanical properties of bamboo fibres. Figure 8a–c shows the morphology of the sisal fibre. The surface of the sisal fibre has higher roughness, and it increases the bonding area between the fibre and cement paste. This leads to increase the mechanical properties of the composites38.Figure 9a–c shows images of the cotton fibres. At the microscope image, a cotton fibre looks like a twisted ribbon or a collapsed and twisted tube. These twists are called convolutions: there are about 60 convolutions per centimetre. The weaves give the cotton an uneven surface of the fibres, which increases the friction between the fibres, but at the same time they can prevent fibres from evenly dispersing in the cement matrix. The outer layer, the cuticle is a thin film of mostly fats and waxes. Figure 9b shows the waxy layer surface with some smooth grooves. The waxy layer forms a thin sheet over the primary wall that forms grooves on the cotton surface19. The cotton fibre surface comprises non-cellulosic materials and amorphous cellulose in which the fibrils are arranged in a criss-cross pattern. Owing to the non-structured orientation of cellulose and non-cellulosic materials, the wall surface is unorganized and open. This gives flexibility to the fibre. The basic ingredients, responsible for the complicated interconnections in the primary wall, are cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin, proteins, and ions. In the core of fibre, only the crystalline cellulose is present, what is highly ordered and has a compact structure with the cellulose fibrils lying parallel to one another18.SEM micrograph of the surface and cross section of the ramie fibre are shown at Fig. 10a–c. The surface of the ramie fibres is dense but porous. There are many micropores and continuous bubbles in the porous structure of a single bundle of a ramie fibre Fig. 10c. This structure has some effect for low absorption of water, moreover, it is also related to the fibre distribution in the cement composites. In case of the short ramie fibre, due to its random distribution in composites, the strength of the composite may be affected. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose weight materials can form a dense layer on the surface of the ramie fibres, so the water absorptivity is low. This special structure of the fibre with a dense matrix, and at the same time, with a characteristic pore arrangement has an influence on the adhesion of the cement matrix and the strength of the cement composite18.The surface and cross section of multifilament macrofibre is demonstrated at Fig. 11a–c. From the chemical point of view, this type of fibres belongs to the polymers from the group of polyolefins, composed of units of the formula: –[CH2CH (CH3)]–. They are obtained by low-pressure polymerization of propylene. They are made of 100% pure co-polymer twisted bundles of multifilament fibres Fig. 11c. Polypropylene is one of two most commonly used plastics, in addition to polyethylene. Polypropylene is a hydrocarbon thermoplastic polymer2.Figure 12a–c shows the structure of a bundle of polypropylene (PP) fibres in the form of a 3D mesh. They are made of isotactic polypropylene, called propylene, CH2=CHCH3 obtained from crude oil. They are one of the finest polypropylene fibres. The surface of the fibres is smooth Fig. 12b 2.The consistency—fluidityThe results of fluidity are shown at Fig. 13. The fluidity of the composite not modified with fibres is 145 mm and is a reference to other test results. The use of bamboo fibres increased the composite fluidity and composite flow by 8.6% (157.5 mm). The use of polymer fibers and jute increased the consistency by about 7%, while the use of sisal fibres by 3%. The use of PP fibres (122.5 mm) had the greatest impact on the loss of consistency by 15.5%. The use of cotton and frame fibres resulted in a reduction of workability and consistency by 13.8% and 3.5%, respectively.Figure 13Results of fluidity test.Full size imageBased on the research results, it was found that in the case of using bamboo fibres characterizing a high absorption of 120–145%, the consistency of composite increased by 8.2% compared to the consistency of composite without fibres. In the case of a change in consistency, the chemical composition of natural fibres, their surface, and the total length in the volume of composite are significant, too. There is a noticeable regularity related to the cellulose content in natural fibres. If the higher cellulose content, it reduces the consistency of the composite. For example, the cellulose content in bamboo fibres is the lowest and amounts to 40–45%, while the cellulose content in cotton fibres is the highest, ranging from 80 to 94%. It can also be recognized that consistency and workability will be influenced by the hemicellulose content.The higher the hemicellulose content, it impacts the higher consistency of the composite. It is similar referring to the content of lignin. It was noticed that the higher the lignin content, the higher the composite consistency was found. Regarding the total length of the fibres, a regularity is apparent that the greater the total length of fibres, e.g., in the case of cotton fibres, the greater decrease in consistency is visible. In the case of polymer and polypropylene (PP) fibres, the consistency is influenced by the surface of the fibre, the number of fibres, and their total length in the volume of the composite. Increasing the total length of PP fibres by approx. 15% resulted in a reduction of the consistency of approx. 20%.Flexural and compressive strengthAssigning mechanical properties of fibre reinforced composite, particular emphasis was placed on the determination of the flexural strength of the composite. This parameter was appointed by the 3-point test. Figure 14. shows the flexural strength of plain composite and 7 groups of different fibre reinforced composites on the 2nd, 7th, 28th, and 56th days.Figure 14Flexural strength test results.Full size imageIt can be seen that the bending strength of composites with the addition of natural fibres, ramie, bamboo, jute, and sisal are similar. The bending strength of composites with PP and polymer fibres is lower. It should be noted that the strength of the cotton fibre-reinforced composite is much lower than that of all the others tested. The reason may be the low tensile strength of the cotton fibres used. When mixing the composites, a tendency to create conglomerates of cotton fibres was also noticed, which may affect the strength of the composites.The test results clearly show that the effectiveness of the added natural fibres depends on the chemical composition and mechanical properties, and above all, on their adhesion to the cement matrix. The adhesion of the natural fibre to the cement matrix has a significant influence on the mechanical properties of the cement composite, in particular on compression and bending strength. The highest bending strength was achieved by cement composites modified with ramie fibres. Ramie fibres are characterized by the highest tensile strength among the tested synthetic and natural fibres, ranging from 400 to 1000 MPa. The results of the compressive strength are shown in Fig. 15.Figure 15Compressive strength test results.Full size imageThe analysis of the test results shows that the use of dispersed fibres reduced the early compressive strength after 2 days from 8.5 to 33%. The exception is the ramie fibres, the use of which increased the early strength by 6.6%. Within 28 days, as in the case of early strength, the use of all types of synthetic and natural fibres resulted in a decrease in strength from 4.6 to 26.5%. The exception is the use of ramie fibres, which increased the compressive strength by 7.2% after 28 days. After 56 days, a decrease in strength was noticed in the case of using PP and polymer synthetic fibres as well as natural cotton and bamboo from 5.5 to 11.9%.On the other hand, the increase in compressive strength after 56 days from 5.8 to 16.4% was visible in the case of using fibres such as sisal, jute and ramie. The highest compressive strength was achieved by the composite with a ramie fibre. The fibre of the ramie is characterized by the highest modulus of elasticity ranging from 24.5 to 128 GPa and is over 100% higher than the Young’s modulus of the other fibres.Shrinkage testFigure 16A shows that the samples after demolding showed expansion for about 2 days, and from the third day after demolding, the length of the samples was shortened. The lowest degree of expansion in the first days was shown by samples without fibres and samples containing cotton fibres. In this case, the expansion did not exceed 0.02 mm/m. However, the same samples finally showed the highest shrinkage after 180 days, which was 0.06 mm/m.Figure 16Testing the change in length of samples.Full size imageThe highest expansion within 48 h after deformation was shown by samples containing sisal fibres, while these samples finally after 180 days showed the lowest deformation of the length of the samples, which was 0.001 mm/m. The samples containing the synthetic fibres showed an expansion of about 0.02–0.03 mm/m in 48 h and the final shrinkage after 180 days was 0.03 mm/m for both the polymer and PP fibre samples. The bamboo and ramie fibres initially showed an expansion of 0.04–0.06 mm/m while their final shrinkage was 0.02 mm/m. The samples with jute fibres showed an expansion of 0.04 mm/m and the final shrinkage of the samples was 0.04 mm/m. Figure 16a,b shows the results of testing the change in length of samples over time.After 180 days, the total deformation of the samples was determined. Samples containing sisal fibers showed a slight expansion of about 0.001 mm/m, while the highest deformation (shrinkage) was shown for composite samples without fibers and with cotton fibres, which was 0.06 mm/m. Samples with bamboo, jute, PP, polymer and ramie fibres showed a shrinkage from 0.02 to 0.04 mm/m. Only the samples containing the sisal fibre showed a slight expansion of 0.001 mm/m.Ultimately, the samples containing sisal fibres were characterized by the lowest deformability. This phenomenon is related to the fibre structure and the total length of the fibres in a sample with dimensions of 40 × 40 × 160mm. For example, in a sample containing sisal fibres, their total length is 5856.7 m. Otherwise, a sample containing jute fibres, their total length in the sample is only 7.4 m. Therefore it was found that the fibre structure, its diameter, the cellulose content and the total length of the fibres in the element are important factors of deformation as a result of shrinkage or expansion of the fibre reinforced composite.Water absorption of composite testHigher water absorption (8.5%) compared to the composite without fibres was noticed in the case of using both synthetic fibres and with the exception of the use of ramie fibres, which caused a slight reduction in water absorption to 8.2%. It can be recognized that the water absorption rate of the 8 groups of samples is slightly different, the highest is the polymer fibre-reinforced composite (9.2%); the lowest water absorption rate refers to ramie fibre-reinforced composite (8.2%). The difference in water absorption rates is presented at Fig. 17.Figure 17Water absorption of composite (%).Full size imageExcept for cotton fibre-reinforced composite, the water absorption rate of another plant fibre-reinforced composite is lower than that of synthetic fibre-reinforced composite. Probably because of the fact that ramie, sisal, and jute fibres all have good moisture absorption and release properties. It is commonly known that plant fibre-reinforced cement-based materials have reduced strength and initial properties due to their performance degradation in a humid environment, so their long-term durability could become problematic. Sisal fibres (with noticed absorption of 95–100%) have absorbed more cement slurry on their surface than jute fibres (absorption of fibre 7–12%). This phenomenon could be explained by the fact that the slurry became the impregnation of the fibre. The absorbability of the composite was tested after the composite had completely hardened. Probably a fibre that is characterized by high absorption—sisal is very well “embedded” in the matrix, therefore the bending strength results for composites with sisal fibre were higher by 8–10%. More

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A theme is emerging in this year’s United Nations conferences on biodiversity (COP15), climate change (COP27) and the international wildlife trade (COP19): countries are struggling to meet key conservation targets. We argue that field research stations are an effective — but imperilled and overlooked — tool that can help policy frameworks to meet those targets. We write on behalf of 149 experts from 47 countries.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests. More

I was filled with hope when I read the first draft of the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) in mid-2021. It seemed that the parties to the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity had learnt from bitter experience — the failure of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, set for the previous decade. Instead of vague aims, the draft framework incorporated most of the advice that the scientific community, myself included, had marshalled. It contained ambitious quantitative thresholds, such as those for the area of ecosystem to be protected, the percentage of genetic diversity to be maintained, and percentage reductions for overall extinction rates, pesticide use and subsidies harmful to biodiversity.Then came the square brackets. In the world of policy, these mark proposed amendments that the parties do not yet agree on. The square brackets proliferated at an alarming rate throughout the GBF text, enclosing, neutralizing and paralysing goals and targets. By July 2021, in a version about 10,200 words long, there were more than 900 pairs of square brackets.Brackets germinated with particular vigour in sections that could make the greatest difference for a better future because of their precision, ambition or conceptual novelty. Almost all quantitative thresholds had been bracketed or had disappeared.
The United Nations must get its new biodiversity targets right
I applaud the new prominence given to gender justice (with a new dedicated Target 22) and to financial resources and capacity building (Target 19). I wonder why other key aspects have not received the same treatment, and have instead been compressed almost beyond recognition. For example, the first draft highlighted that species, ecosystems, genetic diversity and nature’s contribution to people each needed their own specific, verifiable outcomes. Now they have coagulated into one vague yet verbose paragraph.This thicket of square brackets smothers the GBF and the hopes of those of us who see transformative change as the only way forward for life on Earth as we know it.In a titanic effort, a streamlined proposal from the Informal Group on the GBF has halved the brackets to be considered by the parties when they meet in Montreal, Canada, for the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP15) on 7–19 December.We need a text with teeth — and far fewer brackets. This much we have learnt in the 30 years since the foundational 1992 Rio Summit drew attention to the impact of human activities on the environment: a strong, precise, ambitious text does not in itself ensure successful implementation, but a weak, vague, toothless text almost guarantees failure.It was no surprise when the Convention on Biological Diversity officially declared the failure of its ten-year Aichi Targets. People involved at the international interface of biodiversity science and policy were already discussing how to do better in the next decade with the GBF.
Crucial biodiversity summit will go ahead in Canada, not China: what scientists think
The scientific community rose to the occasion. In just three years, we produced the first-ever intergovernmental appraisal of life on Earth and what it means to people: The Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services from IPBES (the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services), which I co-chaired. It was ready in time for the original 2020 date for COP15, before the global disruption caused by COVID-19. It was the most comprehensive ever synthesis of published information on the topic, an inclusive conceptual framework involving various disciplines and knowledge systems, and unprecedented participation of Indigenous peoples.Then, in 2020, we assembled an interdisciplinary team of more than 60 biodiversity scientists across the world, and within a few months produced detailed suggestions for the goals of the GBF. Since then, we have made the best of the many pandemic postponements by issuing a stream of specific, evidence-based recommendations on targets, scenarios and implementation.The scientific advice is convergent. First, the GBF needs to explicitly address each facet of biodiversity; none is a good substitute or umbrella for the others. Second, the biodiversity goals must be more ambitious than ever, accompanied by equally ambitious targets for concrete action and sufficient resources to make them happen. Third, the targets need to be precise, traceable and coordinated.Fourth, formally protecting a proportion of the planet’s most pristine ecosystems will by itself fall far short. Nature must be mainstreamed, incorporated in decisions made for the landscapes in which we live and work every day, well beyond protected areas. Finally, and most crucially, targets must focus on the root causes of biodiversity loss: the ways in which we consume, trade and allocate subsidies, incentives and safeguards.From previous experience, I expected objections to certain sections— pesticides and subsidies, say — but they are everywhere. Only 2 of the 22 targets have no brackets. Ironing out objections takes precious time. Because the framework can be enshrined only by consensus, too many objections can lead to too much compromise.Now, to avert failure, we exhort the governments gathering in Montreal to be brave, long-sighted and open-hearted, and to produce a visionary, ambitious biodiversity framework, grounded in knowledge. The awareness and mobilization of their constituencies has never been greater, the evidence in their hands never clearer. If not now, when?

Competing Interests
The author declares no competing interests. More

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