Ecology

The plots of Igeo, PERI, and PLI of HMs in the topsoil of the tourist area of Sayram Lake (Fig. 5) reveal the degree of HM pollution and eco-risk in this study area on the one hand and, on the other hand, indicate the direction for the relevant agencies to target soil environmental protection and HM pollution prevention and control measures. In this study, the Igeo results showed that Cd was the most highly enriched HM, and Pb, Zn, Cd, and Ni were slightly enriched in a few sample sites. The unnatural accumulation of these elements is usually closely associated with human activities in the area34. Tourism is the main economic activity in the district, and published studies have reported that tourism infrastructure construction (e.g., roads, buildings, etc.) and tourism wastes (e.g., plastic bags, batteries, hotel wastewater) release Cd into the soil35. Additionally, the accumulation of Pb, Zn, Cu and Ni in soils is usually associated with traffic emissions36. The PERI showed that the study area was at low risk overall, with only point ss04 exhibiting medium risk; however, this result was caused by the abnormally high Cd concentration value (Fig. 4) at point ss04 (Cd (concentration): 1.08 mg/kg, Cd (background): 0.34 mg/kg). This anomalous concentration value has a large influence on the PERI calculated based on the measured concentration, the background value and the toxicity coefficient. Therefore, references to this point can be appropriately removed when considering eco-risk. The PLI of each sampling point was greater than 1 and less than 2, which means that the area was in a moderately contaminated state. In general, the degree of soil HM contamination in this area was low; however, due to HM toxicity, bioaccumulation, and persistence37, the HM contamination of this area still requires sustained attention.Figure 5Contamination and ecological risk indices: (a) geoaccumulation index (Igeo) of HMs; (b) ecological risk of individual HMs; (c) potential ecological risk index (PERI) of HMs; (d) pollution load index (PLI) of HMs.Full size imageCorrelation analysis is an efficient way to reveal correlations among HMs through Pearson correlation coefficients, and HMs with significant correlations may originate from the same source38. As shown in Table S5, the elemental pairs Cd-Cu (p  More

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Study siteWe conducted laboratory studies at the field site in Finca Irlanda, which is a 300-hectare organic shaded coffee farm located at 1100-m altitude, in the municipality of Tapachula, the state of Chiapas in Southern Mexico (92° 20′ 29″ W and 15° 10′ 65″ N). For the laboratory experiments, all organisms were freshly collected from Finca Irlanda or reared in the lab from insects collected from the field close by. The lab and field work was performed with a permit from the farm owner the Peters family.Ant aggression testTo examine the effect of phorid flies (P. lascinosus) on the aggressivity of ants (A. sericeasur) towards the parasitoids of the beetle larvae (A. orbigera), we conducted an ant aggression test with two treatments: with and without phorids. In the first treatment, a small coffee branch containing two leaves with scale insects (C. viridis) and 20 ant workers were both introduced into a one-liter plastic container. This was done to mimic as much as possible field conditions where the ants are tending scale insects. After waiting for at least 15 min for the ants to calm down and start tending the scale insects, one third- or fourth-instar larva of the beetle was introduced. In the second treatment, all settings were the same except for the addition of 3–4 phorid flies. Once the two treatments were established, one female parasitoid wasp (H. shuvakhinae) was released into each container. During a forty-minute trial, each time that a parasitoid wasp encountered an ant worker, the response of the ant individual was recorded. Ant responses to parasitoids were classified into two categories: (1) the ant ignores the wasp; (2) the ant attacks the wasp. All insects were used for a single replicate and then discarded. A total of four replicates were completed for both the presence and absence of phorids. For each trial, we calculated the proportion of actions (either aggressive or none) by ants when encountering the parasitoid wasp in the treatments with and without phorid flies. We used R36 to conduct a two-sample Mann–Whitney U test on the proportion of ant actions.Parasitism experiments and analysesTo examine the parasitoid wasp’s host preference and the effect of the 1st degree and the 2nd degree HOIs on the beetle’s parasitism and sex ratio, we conducted a laboratory experiment in insect tents (60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm) with three treatments: (1) no ants (no HOIs but only the wasp and the beetle larvae), (2) ants (1st degree HOI), and (3) ants and phorids (1st and 2nd degree HOIs) (Fig. 1-B). We randomly assigned insect tents to each treatment in each trial, and the tents for each treatment were also shuffled in each trial. All beetle larvae used for these experiments were reared in the laboratory for at least two generations from freshly collected beetle adults. In each tent we placed a coffee branch with 4–6 leaves infested with approximately 100 scale insects inside a plastic container at the center of an insect tent. The set up for the three treatments of species combinations were as follows: (1) 4–5 third or fourth instar beetle larvae and a parasitoid wasp; (2) 4–5 third or fourth instar beetle larvae, a parasitoid wasp, and about 60–80 ant workers; (3) 4–5 third or fourth instar beetle larvae, a parasitoid wasp, about 60–80 ant workers and 3–4 phorid flies. Organism densities in these treatments were close to those observed in the field. To allow for acclimation, we introduced organisms into the tents in the following order: first, we introduced the coffee branch containing scales, immediately followed by the ants (in treatments 2 and 3). After the ants settled down and started tending the scale insects, we introduced the beetle larvae. Once the larvae began moving on the coffee leaves, we introduced the phorids (in treatment 3). When the three treatments were established, and the organisms exhibit normal behavior, we released one lab-reared female parasitoid wasp (H. shuvakhinae) in each tent (treatments 1, 2, and 3). We allowed the organisms to interact for 24 h. After 24 h, we collected all beetle larvae in each treatment and reared them with sufficient scale insects as food, until beetle adults emerged or parasitism symptoms appeared (parasitized larvae turned into hardened black mummies). The treatments of no HOI and 1st + 2nd degree HOI were repeated for 10 consecutive times, and the treatment of 1st degree HOI was repeated for 11 consecutive times, with new individuals of each organism. We recorded parasitism instances and beetle sexes upon emergence. To estimate the sex ratio without parasitoid influence, 78 randomly selected beetle individuals were reared on coffee leaves with scale insects without any interaction with other organisms.To analyze the effect of the parasitoid, the ant and the phorid fly on the parasitism rate and the sex ratio of the beetle, we developed a nested model, starting from$$logitleft(widehat{P}(S)right)=a+bA$$where (widehat{P}(S)) is the probability of an individual being parasitized, A is a binary variable, standing for the absence (0) and presence (1) of ants, a is the baseline probability of parasitism, and b is the magnitude of parasitism altered by ants in the logistic function. We further hypothesized that phorid attacks modify the strength of the interaction modification that ants exert upon the host-parasitoid interaction. Therefore,$$b=g+hP$$where P is another binary variable, standing for the presence (1) and absence (0) of phorids. Substituting b, we obtain the following function,$$logitleft(widehat{P}(S)right)=a+gA+hAP$$where g represents the effect of ants on the parasitism rate of A. orbigera larvae, and h represents the effect of the fly’s facilitation, via interfering with the ant’s interference on the parasitism rate of A. orbigera larvae. We used binary responses (1: survival; 0: parasitized) of all available beetle individuals across the three treatments. We performed model selection based on the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and likelihood ratio tests. For the latter, we started model selection by fitting the full model and preceding each step by eliminating the term that had the least significance (the greatest p-value) on the explanation of the dependent variable. The analysis was performed with the application of the bbmle package in R. By doing this, we determined the maximum likelihood estimates of survival probability of the beetle, (widehat{P}(S)), in the three treatments: (1) A = 0, AP = 0 (no HOI); (2) A = 1, AP = 0 (one HOI: ant interference) and (3) A = 1, AP = 1 (interacting HOIs: phorid interference with ant interference), and errors associated with these estimates.The same idea applies to the sex ratio of the beetle under the influence of various organisms. We developed the following equation,$$logitleft(widehat{P}(F|S)right)= r+mA+nAP$$where (widehat{P}(F|S)) is the probability of a parasitism survivor being female. A and P are both binary variables. Respectively, they represent the ant and the phorid fly, and the numeric attributes, 0 and 1, denote their absence and presence. As before, model selection and parameter estimates were conducted with AIC. By doing this, we determined (widehat{P}(F|S)), the estimate of being a female beetle given survival, for the three treatments: (1) A = 0, AP = 0 (no HOI); (2) A = 1, AP = 0 (one HOI: ant interference) and (3) A = 1, AP = 1 (interacting HOIs: phorid interference with ant interference), and errors associated with these estimates. We employed the mle2 function in the bbmle package in R to estimate the female probability (1) in the absence of HOI (the beetle and the parasitoid alone), (2) in the presence of the 1st degree HOI (the beetle, the parasitoid and the ant), and (3) in the presence of the 1st and the 2nd degree HOIs (the beetle, the parasitoid, the ant and the phorid fly).Probabilities of per capita female and per capita male survival from parasitism under the influence of ant and the phorid flyTo test whether the sex ratio of beetle survivors’ population is due to sex-differential survival probability, Bayes’ theorem was employed. Per capita female survival probability from parasitism in each treatment of the parasitism experiment was derived based on (widehat{P}(F)), (widehat{P}left(F|Sright),) and (widehat{P}(S)), and per capita male survival probability was derived based on (widehat{P}(M)), (widehat{P}left(M|Sright),) and (widehat{P}(S)). According to the Central Limit Theorem, the estimates of proportions, (widehat{P}left(S|Fright)) and (widehat{P}left(S|Mright)), are approximately normally distributed,$$widehat{P}left(S|Fright)sim Nleft(widehat{P}left(S|Fright), sqrt{frac{widehat{P}(S|F)times left(1-widehat{P}left(S|Fright)right)}{{n}^{*}}}right)$$$$widehat{P}left(S|Mright)sim Nleft(widehat{P}left(S|Mright), sqrt{frac{widehat{P}(S|M)times left(1-widehat{P}left(S|Mright)right)}{{n}^{*}}}right)$$with means (widehat{P}left(S|Fright)) and (widehat{P}(S|M)), and standard deviations (sqrt{frac{widehat{P}left(S|Fright)times (1-widehat{P}left(S|Fright))}{{n}^{*}}}) and (sqrt{frac{widehat{P}left(S|Mright)times (1-widehat{P}left(S|Mright))}{{n}^{*}}}), where (widehat{P}(S|F)) and (widehat{P}(S|M)), respectively, are the population proportions of females and males. Here we employ n*, the smallest sample size among those of the three variables in the Bayesian formulas for males and females. Since the three variables have different sample sizes, n* guarantees a conservative estimate of standard error, and thus confidence interval, of each derived probability. More

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