Ecology

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Thermogravimetric/differential thermogravimetry analyses of corn stoverThermogravimetric/Differential Thermogravimetry (TG/DTG) curves are shown in Fig. 2. The pyrolysis process of corn stover could be divided into three stages. The first stage was the dehydration stage, which occurred at approximately 55–125 °C, and the weight loss was mainly accounted for by water19. The second stage was the pyrolysis stage, which occurred at approximately 200–400 °C and mainly involved the decomposition of cellulose, hemicellulose and a small amount of lignin. This process involved the generation of CO and CO2 and the breaking of carbonaceous polymer bonds20. In addition, a shoulder peak in the range of 265 to 300 °C in the DTG diagram could be caused by side chain decomposition and glycosidic bond cleavage of xylan during the pyrolysis of corn stover21. The third stage was the carbonization stage, which occurred above 400 °C; this stage mainly involved the decomposition of lignin22,23. The carbonization process was relatively slow after 600 °C; this process was called the passive pyrolysis stage24. In general, the TG loss in the pyrolysis process of corn stover was mainly from the moisture in the biomass sample in the first stage. Hemicellulose and cellulose decomposition occurred in the second stage, and lignin decomposition occurred in the third stage25. In this experiment, the minimum pyrolysis temperature for the preparation of biochar was 400 °C. Therefore, the pyrolysis of biochar was relatively complete.Figure 2TG/DTG curves of corn stover.Full size imageCharacterization of biocharYield and specific surface area analysesThe yield and SBET are presented in Table 2. BC, BC-H and BC-OH represent the origin, acid-modified, and base-modified biochar, respectively. The yield of corn stover biochar exhibited a negative correlation with the temperature and decreased from 39.65 to 28.26% when the pyrolysis temperature increased from 400 to 700 °C. This phenomenon could have occurred due to the loss of more volatile substances and the thermal degradation of lignocellulose with increasing temperature, thus reducing the yield of biochar26,27. The SBET of the original biochar showed little difference below 700 °C but increased significantly at 700 °C. Combined with the SEM analysis (Fig. 3), at low temperatures, more ashes on the surface of biochar could block its pores so that the change in SBET was not obvious. At 700 °C, because the ash content significantly reduced and the pyrolysis was more sufficient, the pores of the biochar were more developed, and the SEBT significantly increased. The SBET of the acid/base-modified biochar increased with increasing temperature. The SBET of biochar was larger than that of the original biochar after acid and base modification at 400–600 °C. This phenomenon occurred because the porous structure of biochar was enhanced by acid and base modification28. Moreover, pickling removed most of the inorganic substances in biochar and reduced ash content, while alkali washing removed the tar on the surface of biochar to a certain extent29. However, at 700 °C, the SBET of biochar after acid/base modification was lower than that of the original biochar. Combined with the SEM (Fig. 4), the acid/base modification caused the nanopores of biochar to collapse into mesopores or macropores30. Therefore, the well-developed pore structure of the biochar prepared at 700 °C was destroyed by acid/base modification, resulting in a significant decrease in SBET.Table 2 Yield and SBET of different biochars.Full size tableFigure 3SEM (ZEISS) images of biochar at different pyrolysis temperatures: (a) C1, (b) C8, (c) C12, and (d) C16.Full size imageFigure 4SEM (OPTON) images of C16 biochar and its acid/base modification: (a) C16, (b) C16-H, and (c) C–OH.Full size imageScanning electron microscopy analysisThe C1, C8, C12 and C16 biochars had the highest Cd2+ removal rates at 400, 500, 600 and 700 °C, respectively. Therefore, these BCs were selected for SEM analysis. Figure 3 clearly showed that as the pyrolysis temperature increased from 400 to 700 °C, the pore structure of biochar became more developed, with a smaller pore size and more pores. Although there were numerous pores at 500 °C, the pores were not fully developed and were blocked inside. At 700 °C, the skeleton structure appeared, and the particle size of ash blocked in the pores decreased.By taking C16 biochar with the highest removal rate of Cd2+ as the research object, the changes in the biochar surface before and after modification were compared. C16-H and C16-OH represent acid-modified and base-modified biochar, respectively. After acid/base modification, the ash content on the surface of the biochar decreased, and the pore size increased (Fig. 4). Therefore, some skeleton structures could collapse after corrosion, which was consistent with the previous SBET results. Sun et al. discovered that citric acid-modified biochar would lead to micropore wall collapse and micropore loss, resulting in a reduction in SBET31. This finding was in agreement with the results of our study.Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysisThe FTIR spectra of biochar at different pyrolysis temperatures are presented in Fig. 5a.Figure 5FTIR spectra of corn stover biochar: (a) different pyrolysis temperatures and (b) different modification treatments.Full size imageAs the pyrolysis temperature increased from 300 to 700 °C, the absorption peak intensity showed a downwards trend. There was a remarkable decrease in features associated with stretch O–H (3400 cm−1)32. The vibration peaks of C–H (2924 cm−1) and C=O (1610 cm−1) decreased with increasing temperature, which could be due to the reduction in –CH2 and –CH3 groups of small molecules and the pyrolysis of C=O into gas or liquid byproducts at high temperatures33. In addition, the peak at 1435 cm−1 was identified as the vibration of C=C bonds belonging to the aromatic skeleton of biochar. A decrease in the absorbance peaks was found at 1115 cm−1, which corresponded to C–O–C bonds. The ratio of intensities for C=C/C=O (1550–1650 cm−1) and C–O–C (1115 cm−1) to the shoulder (1100–1200 cm−1) gradually decreased, and the loss of –OH at 3444 cm−1 indicated that the oxygen content in biochar reduced. The cellulose and wood components were dehydrated, and the degree of biochar condensation increased at higher temperatures. The bending vibration peaks of Ar–H at 856 and 877 cm−1 changed little at different temperatures, which showed that the aromatic rings were relatively stable below 700 °C34. Combined with the above analysis the condensation degree of biochar increased gradually above 400 °C35,36. In summary, as the pyrolysis temperature increased, the degree of aromatization of biochar improved, and the numbers of oxygen-containing functional groups decreased continuously.Figure 5b showed that after acid/base modification, the absorbance peaks at 3444 cm−1, 1610 cm−1 and 1115 cm−1 increased, indicating that the number of oxygen-containing functional groups increased. However, the stretching vibration peak of aromatic ring skeleton C=C (1435 cm−1) and the bending vibration peaks of Ar–H (856–877 cm−1) changed little. The number of functional groups of acid-modified biochar increased more than that of alkali-modified biochar. Mahdi et al. found that acid modification increased the number of functional groups in a study of biochar modification37. After acid/base modification, the number of oxygen-containing functional groups, such as hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, increased.Optimization of biocharFigure 6 illustrates that the removal rates of Cd2+ by corn stover biochar (original, acid-modified, and base-modified biochars) consistently increased with increasing pyrolysis temperature. The highest removal rate reached 95.79% at 700 °C. The removal rate decreased after modification, especially after pickling. The results showed that C16 biochar had the best removal effect on Cd2+.Figure 6Cd2+ removal rate of different biochars (BC: original biochar, BC-OH: alkali-modified biochar, and BC-H: acid-modified biochar).Full size imageIntuitive and variance analyses were employed to explore the influences of biochar preparation conditions on the removal rate of Cd2+.

1.

Intuitive analysis
The intuitive analysis of the orthogonal experiment is shown in Table 3 and Fig. 7. The pyrolysis temperature had the most significant influence on the removal of Cd2+, followed by the retention time and finally the heating rate. Therefore, the optimal conditions for biochar preparation were a pyrolysis temperature of 700 °C, a retention time of 2.5 h, and a heating rate of 5 °C/min.

2.

Variance analysis
Variance analysis showed that the effect of pyrolysis temperature on the removal rate of Cd2+ was very significant (Table 4). The effects of retention time and heating rate were not significant. This phenomenon was consistent with the conclusions obtained in the intuitive analysis.

Table 3 Intuitive analyses of influencing factors of biochar preparation.Full size tableFigure 7Intuitive analysis diagram of influencing factors for biochar preparation.Full size imageTable 4 Variance analysis.Full size tableAnalysis of adsorption mechanismThe SBET of the unmodified biochar did not change significantly with temperature, which indicated that SBET could potentially not be a critical factor for Cd2+ adsorption. Qi et al. obtained a similar conclusion when studying the adsorption of Cd2+ in water by chicken litter biochar38. In addition to SBET, the four primary mechanisms involved in the removal of heavy metal ions by biochar were as follows: (1) Ion exchange: the alkali or alkaline earth metals in biochar (K+, Ca2 +, Na+, and Mg2+) were the dominant cations in ion exchange39. (2) The complexation of oxygen-containing functional groups mainly included hydroxyl and carboxyl groups40. (3) Mineral precipitation: Cd2+ was precipitated by minerals on the surface of biochar to form Cd3(PO4)2 and CdCO341. Soluble cadmium precipitated with some anions released by biochar, such as CO32−, PO43− and OH−42,43. (4) π electron interaction: Cd2+ coordinated with the π electrons of C=C or C=O at low pyrolysis temperatures43,44. Biochar contains more aromatic structures at high pyrolysis temperatures, which could provide more π electrons. Therefore, the π electron interaction in adsorption of Cd2+ was effectively enhanced45.C1, C8, C12 and C16 were selected to study the adsorption mechanism. Related physicochemical properties are given in Table 5.Table 5 Physicochemical properties of biochar at different pyrolysis temperatures.Full size tableThe CEC of biochar gradually increased as the pyrolysis temperature increased, reaching a maximum at 600 °C and slightly decreasing at 700 °C. This phenomenon could have occurred because the crystalline minerals under high pyrolysis temperatures inhibited the exchange of cations on the surface of biochar with Cd2+ in aqueous solution46. Nevertheless, CEC did not change significantly with temperature; thus, CEC was not the main adsorption mechanism. With increasing pyrolysis temperature, the number of acidic functional groups decreased gradually, while the number of alkaline functional groups increased. The main functional groups used to remove Cd2+ were generally considered acidic oxygen-containing functional groups. However, the number of these functional groups decreased with increasing pyrolysis temperature, which weakened the complexation on the surface of the biochar. However, this result was contradictory to the results of Cd2+ adsorption. Therefore, the functional groups were not the main adsorption mechanism.To further explore the adsorption mechanism of Cd2+, the biochar before and after the adsorption of Cd2+ was characterized by XRD. As shown in Fig. 7a, C16-100Cd and C16-200Cd represented the biochar after Cd2+ adsorption when the concentrations of cadmium solution were 100 mg/l and 200 mg/l, respectively. The results showed that new peaks appeared at 30.275° and 36.546° after adsorption, corresponding to CdCO3. The spike at 29.454° was due to Cd(OH)2. Additionally, the intensity of the CdCO3 peak increased significantly from C16-100Cd to C16-200Cd, indicating that mineral precipitation occurred in adsorption. Liu et al. found similar results in a study on removing Cd2+ from water by blue algae biochar12. However, as the concentration of Cd2+ increased from 0 to 200 mg/L, the diffraction peak at 2θ = 29.454° first increased and then decreased. This because the peak position of CaCO3 at 2θ = 29.369° was very close to Cd(OH)2 at 2θ = 29.454°. At low concentrations, the production of Cd(OH)2 was greater than that of CdCO3. When the initial concentration of Cd2+ increased, more CO32− released by CaCO3 combined with Cd2+ to form CdCO3, resulting in a reduction in the diffraction peak.As presented in Fig. 8b, the peak intensities of CdCO3 and Cd(OH)2 gradually increase with increasing pyrolysis temperature. On the one hand, this phenomenon could be ascribed to the increase in the mineral content of biochar with increasing pyrolysis temperature. On the other hand, the pH value of biochar increased with increasing pyrolysis temperature. In this way, more OH− was released, thus forming more Cd(OH)2. Wang et al. obtained similar results42. Moreover, the peak intensity of KCl at 2θ = 28.347° decreased after adsorption, as shown in Fig. 8a, which indicated that ion exchange took part in adsorption.Figure 8XRD images: (a) before and after adsorption of Cd2+ on C16 biochar and (b) Cd2+ adsorption by biochar at different pyrolysis temperatures.Full size imageIn addition, the FTIR spectra showed that the number of functional groups, such as C=C and C=O, in biochar decreased with increasing pyrolysis temperature, leading to the weakening of cation–π interactions between Cd2+ and C=C and C=O. In contrast, due to the enhanced aromatization of functional groups on the surface of biochar, many lone pair electrons existed in the electron-rich domains of the graphene-like structure, which in turn enhanced the cation–π interactions. Harvey et al., based on the study of Cd2+ adsorption by plant biochar, concluded that the electron-rich domain bonding mechanism between Cd2+ and the graphene-like structure on the surface of biochar played a more significant role in biochar with a high degree of carbonization45. Therefore, π-electron interactions could play a dominant role in Cd2+ adsorption on high-temperature pyrolysis biochar. Moreover, the results showed that the number of alkaline functional groups increased while acidic functional groups decreased with the increase in pyrolysis temperature. It is generally believed that acidic functional groups could withdraw electrons, and basic functional groups could donate electrons47,48. The biochar with higher pyrolysis temperature contained more alkaline functional groups, which improved the electron donating ability of biochar and enhanced the cation–π electron effect.In summary, mineral precipitation and π electron coordination were the main mechanisms of removing Cd2+ from water by corn stover biochar. This phenomenon explained why the Cd2+ removal rate of acid/base–modified biochar decreased. After modification, the functional groups on the surface of biochar increased, but the inorganic minerals were removed. Pickling resulted in the loss of soluble minerals and alkaline functional groups on the surface of biochar, which was not conducive to adsorption49. After alkaline washing, more PO43−, CO32− and HCO3− were released, thereby reducing the mineral precipitation50,51. Since NaOH had a weaker destructive effect than HCl and introduced some OH−, alkaline washing had little effect on the removal rate of Cd2+.Adsorption isotherm and adsorption kineticsAdsorption isothermThe adsorption isotherms were fitted with Langmuir (Eq. 3) and Freundlich (Eq. 4) models, as shown in Fig. 9, and the fitting parameters are listed in Table 6.Figure 9Adsorption isotherm.Full size imageTable 6 Fitting parameters of the adsorption isotherm model.Full size tableThe Langmuir model (R2  > 0.963) was more suitable than the Freundlich model (R2  > 0.919), indicating that the adsorption sites of biochar were evenly distributed, and adsorption was mainly monolayer. Parameter KL reflected the difficulty of adsorption and was generally divided into four types: unfavourable (KL  > 1), favourable (0  More

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We hypothesized that functionally distinct forest types can be mapped at moderate spatial resolutions, using a combination of canopy foliar traits and canopy structure information. Our analysis of LiDAR and imaging spectroscopy data at spatial resolutions ranging from 4 to 200 m (16 m2–40,000 m2), with an emphasis on the 30 m (900 m2) spaceborne hyperspectral spatial resolution, reveals that few remotely sensed canopy properties are needed to successfully identify ecologically distinct forest types at two diverse tropical forest sites in Malaysian Borneo. In testing our second hypothesis that mapped forest types exhibit distinct ecosystem function, we found that forest types identified using remotely sensed leaf P, LMA, Max H, and canopy cover at 20 m height (Cover20) closely align with forest types defined from field-based floristic surveys29,30,31,32,33 and inventory plot-based measurements of growth and mortality rates (Fig. 4b). Our approach, however, enables mapping of their entire spatial extent (Fig. 1) and reveals important structural and functional variation within areas characterized as a single forest type in previous studies (Fig. 3). Current and forthcoming satellite hyperspectral platforms, including PRISMA (30 m), CHIME (20–30 m), and SBG (30 m), have or will have comparable spectral resolution, higher temporal revisits, and much greater geographic coverage. The ability to conduct this type of analysis using remote sensing measurements at 30 m resolution suggests that our method can be applied to these emerging spaceborne imaging spectroscopy data to reveal important differences in structure and function across the world’s tropical forests.Nested functional forest types revealedTo test our first hypothesis, rather than making an a priori decision about the number of k-means clusters (k), we explored the capacity of remotely sensed data to reveal ecologically relevant variation in forest types. Baldeck and Asner took a similar unsupervised approach to estimating beta diversity in South Africa34. Because the choice of k directly influences analysis outcomes, careful selection of k is required. Different approaches for identifying the number of clusters, using the Gapk and Wk elbow metrics35, yielded varying optimal numbers of clusters for the Sepilok and Danum landscapes (Fig. 1, Supplementary Figs. 4 and 5). However, at both sites, a comparison of results based on different values of k revealed ecologically meaningful structural and functional differences and graduated transitions between forest types (Fig. 2, Supplementary Figs. 7 and 8), indicating that the exploration of traits that aggregate or separate forest types as k changes is a valuable exercise. Overlap between the remotely sensed forest type boundaries and inventory plots within distinct forest types indicate that the series of clustered forests align closely with forest types defined based on in situ data on species composition and ecosystem structure. In part, this type of analysis requires careful selection of the number of clusters. Additionally, however, we gained valuable insights via the exploration of varying numbers of clusters as it relates to biologically meaningful categorization of forest types. Extending this method to other parts of the tropics will require similar decision-making, which will either require user input, or the development of robust automated algorithms for selecting k.Forest types capture differences in ecosystem dynamicsWe further evaluated the canopy traits and structural attributes that were most critical for mapping distinct forest types, hypothesizing that mapped forest types exhibit distinct ecosystem function. Forest types revealed by the cluster analyses were distributed along the leaf economic spectrum, where the leaf economic spectrum characterizes a tradeoff in plant growth strategies36. LMA, which can covary strongly with leaf N and P, is a key indicator of plant growth strategies along the spectrum37. At the slow-return end of the leaf economics spectrum, plants in nutrient-poor conditions with low leaf nutrient concentrations invest in leaf structure and defense, expressed as high LMA, strategizing longer-lived, tougher leaves with slower decomposition rates. This strategy comes at the cost of slower growth. At the quick-return end of the spectrum, plants in nutrient-rich environments with higher leaf nutrient concentrations invest less in structure and defense, enabling faster growth and more rapid leaf turnover, i.e., shorter leaf lifespans. This quick-return growth strategy supports higher photosynthetic rates and more rapid carbon gain36.In this study, the principal components and clustering results yielded forest types that are indicative of community level differences associated with leaf economic spectrum differences. The nutrient rich sites (Danum1 and Danum2, Supplementary Fig. 8) show high canopy N and P and low LMA compared to the nutrient poor and acidic sites (Sandstone and Kerangas), which contributes to lower leaf photosynthetic capacity (Vcmax) and growth (Fig. 4b). Foliar N:P also increased with site fertility, confirming that tropical forests are primarily limited by phosphorus, and not nitrogen38,39, with large implications for carbon sequestration in these forests. Orthogonal differences in canopy structure and architecture between Danum forest types and Sepilok Sandstone and Alluvial forests could be indicative of ecosystem scale differences in the sensitivity of these forests to endogenous disturbance processes40.The significant differences in aboveground carbon stocks and growth and mortality rates between forest types further suggests strong differences in ecosystem dynamics. In general, growth rates varied inversely to aboveground carbon, and higher aboveground carbon corresponded to lower mortality rates. As an example, the Sepilok sandstone forests, which are largely comprised of slow-growing dipterocarp species29,33, had the highest median aboveground carbon (236 Mg C ha−1), with higher canopy P and N, and lower LMA. The taller canopy and low canopy leaf nutrient concentrations are consistent with the low growth and mortality rates found in the sandstone forest, indicating a slow-growth strategy yielding larger trees and higher aboveground carbon stocks. In contrast, alluvial forests exhibit high turnover with mortality and growth rates higher relative to Sandstone forests corresponding to lower aboveground carbon on average. Kerangas forests exhibited low aboveground carbon despite an intermediate plot-level growth rate, and mortality rates that were significantly lower than the Danum or alluvial forest types. Kerangas forests, which were characterized by the highest LMA, lowest foliar P and N (Fig. 2a), and the lowest plot-level aboveground carbon density (186 Mg C ha−1; Fig. 4a), are known to have higher stem densities, lower canopy heights, and long-lived leaves5,32,41, suggesting well-developed strategies for nutrient retention42. Interestingly, despite significantly different aboveground carbon and demography, the kerangas and sandstone forests did not differ in LAI or canopy architecture (P:H); although maximum height, Cover20, and Hpeak LAI were significantly higher in the sandstone forest, highlighting the need to account for differences beyond LAI when scaling processes from leaves to ecosystems.In addition, when three forest types were distinguished at Sepilok, the alluvial inventory plot had significantly higher aboveground carbon than the remote sensing-derived alluvial forest extent (Fig. 4a, p  More

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