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Characteristics of LVD dataset and assembled vOTUsThe land use virome dataset LVD was derived from 2.6 billion paired clean reads of sequences across 50 viromes of 25 samples with five types of land uses (Supplementary Data 2). A total of 6,442,065 contigs ( >1500 bp) were yielded, of which 764,466 (11.8%) contigs were identified as putative viral genomes through VIBRANT. Subsequently, putative false positive viral genomes were removed (see Methods section), and 27,951 and 48,936 bona fide viral genomes were retained from the 25 intracellular VLPs (iVLPs) and 25 extracellular VLPs (eVLPs) viromes, respectively. These genomes were clustered into 25,941 and 45,152 vOTUs for iVLPs and eVLPs viromes, respectively, in which the iVLPs and eVLPs viromes shared 11,467 (19.2%) vOTUs. Subsequently, they were merged and dereplicated, resulting in 59,626 vOTUs (Supplementary Data 3) for the following analysis. A total of 8112 (13.6%) vOTUs genomes were classified as complete, in which the median length of all and circular vOTUs were 25,183 bp and 45,511 bp, respectively (Supplementary Fig. 4).To explore the taxonomic affiliation of vOTUs in family and genus-level, a gene-sharing network consist of 59,626 vOTUs genomes from this study and 3502 reference phage genomes (from NCBI Viral RefSeq version 201) revealed 6009 VCs comprising of 37,224 vOTUs, of which 34,417 vOTUs were from LVD, besides 2794 singletons (2653 from LVD dataset), 16,056 outliers (15,833 from LVD) and 8492 overlaps (8061 from LVD) were detected (Supplementary Data 4). Of these, only 157 VCs contained genomes from both the RefSeq and LVD dataset (1864 viral genomes) (Supplementary Data 4). Most of VCs (1837, 30.4%) included only two members.At the family level, most of vOTUs were classified into Siphoviridae (712 by vConTACT2 and 29,671 (50.9%) by Demovir, tailed dsDNA), Podoviridae (610 by vConTACT2 and 9923 (17.6 %) by Demovir, tailed dsDNA), Myoviridae (485 by vConTACT2 and 5445 (9.9%) by Demovir, tailed dsDNA), Tectiviridae (50 by vConTACT2 and 10 (0.10%) by Demovir, non-tailed dsDNA) (Fig. 1). Besides, the Eukaryotic viruses Herpesviridae (159 by Demovir, 0.26%, dsDNA), Phycodnaviridae (120 (0.20%) by Demovir, dsDNA); the Virophage Family Lavidaviridae (15 (0.03%) by Demovir) were detected as well, but a majority of vOTUs were unclassified in genus-level.Fig. 1: The taxonomic assignment of LVD.Pie charts showing the affiliation of 56,870 vOTUs at family level assigned by script Demovir (a). and the affiliation of 1864 vOTUs at family level assigned by package vConTACT2 (b). Source data are provided in the Source Data file.Full size imageViral community structures differ across land use typesBray–Curtis dissimilarity of viral communities (median 0.9951) showed strong heterogeneity of viral communities among different sites (Fig. 2a). While, the Bray–Curtis dissimilarity (median: 0.5109) between paired viral communities of iVLPs and eVLPs from each site have a significant lower heterogeneity than inter-sites (Wilcox.test, p  0.05; Fig. 2b). Therefore, the paired iVLPs and eVLPs viromes from each site were merged for subsequently viral community analysis.Fig. 2: The macrodiversity of soil viral communities.a Boxplot showing Bray–Curtis dissimilarity of viral communities of intra-sites (between the corresponding community of iVLPs and eVLPs, n = 25) and inter-sites (between different sample sites, n = 300). The minima, maxima, center, bounds of box and whiskers in boxplots from bottom to top represented percentile 0, 10, 25, 50, 75, 90, and 100, respectively, the difference between different zones was tested using the two-sided Wilcox.test, ****p  More

Study site and field data collectionPermanent 1 m2 photoquadrats were established on Heron Reef in 1962/63, using 9 mm diameter mild steel (rebar) pegs, which were replaced over time. From the 1990’s, replacement pegs were stainless steel for greater longevity. Four sites were established, the protected (south) crest, inner flat, exposed (north) crest and exposed pools. Co-ordinates for each site are presented in Table 1, the layout shown in Fig. 2, and sites have been well described previously5,6. At each census, a 1 m2 frame divided into a 5 × 5 grid using string was placed over the pegs, and the quadrat photographed from directly above at low tide. From 1963 until 2003, a 35 mm camera and colour slide film were used. The camera was attached to a tripod affixed to the 1 m2 frame, and captured around 2/3 of the quadrat. The frame (and camera) were then rotated 180 degrees to capture the remainder of the quadrat. After 2003, a hand-held digital camera was used, with the entire quadrat being captured in a single image. Concurrent with each census, mud maps of each quadrat were hand drawn in the field, and all colonies identified in situ by someone with expertise in coral taxonomy.Table 1 Coordinates of the study sites on Heron Island Reef (WGS84).Full size tableFig. 2Quadrat layouts for each of the four sites respectively, noting that the north crest and north ridge have been treated as a single north crest site in previous publications. Underlining indicates original 1962/63 quadrats. Other quadrats were added in or after 2008, as indicated in the text. Contiguous quadrats are pictured bordering each other. Spacing between separate quadrats or groups of quadrats is not shown to scale. Note that up until 2005, NRNW was known as NR. The acronyms in each quadrat represent its name.Full size imageAt the protected (south) crest, a set of six contiguous quadrats were established in 1963 in a 2 × 3 arrangement parallel to the waterline, and about 420 m southeast of the island. This site is exposed at low tide, and was photographed once all water had drained off it. Images of quadrats A, C & E (the shoreward row) from 1963 to 2012 have been fully processed, and the data have been through QA/QC. Data after 2012 exist as images only. These quadrats form the basis of previous analyses1,4,5,6 for this site. Photographs are available for quadrats B, D & F, but apart from 2003–2010, have not been processed. In 2010, an additional two quadrats were established either side of the original six, leading to a 2 × 5 arrangement. Again, only imagery is available for these additional quadrats.At the inner flat, two pairs of contiguous quadrats were established in 1962, 44 m apart, about 70 m south of the island. This site is covered by ~10 cm of water at low tide, so could only be photographed on a still day. Imagery for this site is only available to 2012, after which the marker stakes appear to have been removed in a cleanup of the area. Images for one quadrat in each pair have been processed, but have not been subject to full QA/QC.At the exposed (north) crest main site, a set of four contiguous quadrats was established about 1100 m northeast of the island in 1963. An additional single quadrat (north ridge) was established 326 m to the east. Images from 1963 to 2012 have been fully processed, and the data have been through QA/QC. Data after 2012 exist as images only. In 2005, the single north ridge quadrat was expanded to 4 m2, and in 2008, both subsites were expanded to six quadrats in a 2 × 3 arrangement. These additional quadrats have been digitised up to 2012, but have not been through full QA/QC.The exposed pools are two individual quadrats about 5 m apart about 30 m north of the eastern (north ridge) exposed crest site. These are on the edge of a natural pool, and range from ~5–50 cm deep at low tide, and so could only be photographed on a calm day. Imagery for this site is only available until 2005, after which the marker stakes could not be relocated. Images from 1963 to 1998 have been processed, but have not been through full QA/QC.Retrieval of coral composition data from the photoquadratsProcessing of the images involved scanning the colour slides to produce digital images, and then orthorectifying each image to a 1 m2 basemap in ArcGIS (ESRI Ltd). The corners of the frame, and the holes for the string grid, were used as control points for the orthorectification. For images that originated as colour slides, each half of the quadrat was individually orthorectified to the same basemap, producing a single image of the entire quadrat (see Fig. 3). While contiguous quadrats were orthorectified individually, they were done so against a basemap containing all quadrats in the group, meaning that the resulting images can be easily merged to create a single image of the group. The outlines of all visible coral colonies ( >~1 cm2), and other benthic organisms such as algae and clams, were then digitised in ArcGIS to create a single shapefile for each quadrat for each year. Each colony was represented as an individual feature within the shapefile, and was assigned a unique colony number and species based on the mud maps drawn in the field. Colony numbers were consistent across years, allowing individual colonies to be tracked over time. If a colony underwent fission, the original colony number was retained for each, with the addition of a unique identifier after a decimal point. For example, if colony 35 split in two, the resultant colonies were identified as 35.1 and 35.2. If 35.2 later split again, the resultant colonies were identified as 35.2.1 and 35.2.2. If the colony overlapped the edge of the quadrat, only the area within the quadrat was digitised, and a flag was applied to indicate that only part of the colony was included (edgestatus = 1 in the data). Upon completion of digitisation, ArcGIS was used to calculate the area and perimeter of all colonies. While multiple census were conducted in 1963, 1971 and 1983, only a single census in each year has been processed. There are currently no plans to undertake further digitisation or QA/QC of this data set.Fig. 3Example orthorectified and stitched (prior to 2001) images from the NCNE quadrat, showing the effects of a cyclone that removed all colonies in 1972, and slow recovery over subsequent decades.Full size image More

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