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Physico-chemical characterization of the Sado EstuaryThe seasonal cycle of water temperature in the Sado Estuary in 2018 and 2019, showed the expected pattern, with maxima temperature observed in summer and minima in winter (Fig. 2A). During summer, warmer temperatures were found in the inner regions of the estuary (AC and MC) and lower temperatures near the mouth of the estuary (EM). During winter, there was an inversion of the pattern, with the coolest waters recorded inside the estuary (Fig. 2A). Near the estuary mouth (EM), salinities recorded were always between 35 and 36 (Fig. 2B). In the inner stations, higher salinities ( > 30) were found during summer/early-autumn of 2018 and late-spring/summer of 2019. Maxima salinities ( > 36) were recorded in the summer of 2019 (Fig. 2B). The lowest salinities were always found in the upper region (AC), reaching a minimum of 12 in March 2018 (Fig. 2B).Figure 2Discrete time series of physico-chemical variables obtained in the Sado Estuary during sampling surveys. (A)—Water temperature (°C); (B)—Salinity; (C)—Turbidity (NTU); (D)—Coloured dissolved organic matter at 443 nm (CDOM, m−1); (E)—pH; (F)—Dissolved oxygen (DO, mg L−1); (G)—Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN, µmol L−1); (H)—Phosphate (PO43−, µmol L−1); and (I) –Silicate (Si(OH)4, µmol L−1).Full size imageThe water turbidity was substantially higher in AC, reaching values above 10 NTU in the summer of 2018 and since spring of 2019, with a maximum of 40 NTU recorded in March 2018 (Fig. 2C). The turbidity values and seasonal pattern for stations MC and MR were similar, with a maximum of 10 NTU recorded in MR during spring of 2018 (Fig. 2C). Lower turbidity was observed during winter in stations AC, MC, and MR (Fig. 2C). Water turbidity was always lower than 1.5 NTU at EM (Fig. 2C). The CDOM was higher in the upper region and lower in the downstream area (Fig. 2D). At AC, a CDOM value  10 µmol L−1) (Fig. 2G). Phosphate concentrations were below 1.5 µmol L−1 in the entire estuary, with higher values in the inner stations, and lower ( More

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Agriculture soils are a source of nitrous oxide and account for 60% of total emissions. It is well established that nitrogen addition via fertilizers drives nitrous oxide emissions during crop growing season. However, little is known about the role of melting snow and thawing surface soil layers during the spring. Limited knowledge of this phenomenon reduces our ability to develop accurate nitrous oxide emissions inventories required under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). More