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Physico-chemical characterization of the Sado EstuaryThe seasonal cycle of water temperature in the Sado Estuary in 2018 and 2019, showed the expected pattern, with maxima temperature observed in summer and minima in winter (Fig. 2A). During summer, warmer temperatures were found in the inner regions of the estuary (AC and MC) and lower temperatures near the mouth of the estuary (EM). During winter, there was an inversion of the pattern, with the coolest waters recorded inside the estuary (Fig. 2A). Near the estuary mouth (EM), salinities recorded were always between 35 and 36 (Fig. 2B). In the inner stations, higher salinities ( > 30) were found during summer/early-autumn of 2018 and late-spring/summer of 2019. Maxima salinities ( > 36) were recorded in the summer of 2019 (Fig. 2B). The lowest salinities were always found in the upper region (AC), reaching a minimum of 12 in March 2018 (Fig. 2B).Figure 2Discrete time series of physico-chemical variables obtained in the Sado Estuary during sampling surveys. (A)—Water temperature (°C); (B)—Salinity; (C)—Turbidity (NTU); (D)—Coloured dissolved organic matter at 443 nm (CDOM, m−1); (E)—pH; (F)—Dissolved oxygen (DO, mg L−1); (G)—Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN, µmol L−1); (H)—Phosphate (PO43−, µmol L−1); and (I) –Silicate (Si(OH)4, µmol L−1).Full size imageThe water turbidity was substantially higher in AC, reaching values above 10 NTU in the summer of 2018 and since spring of 2019, with a maximum of 40 NTU recorded in March 2018 (Fig. 2C). The turbidity values and seasonal pattern for stations MC and MR were similar, with a maximum of 10 NTU recorded in MR during spring of 2018 (Fig. 2C). Lower turbidity was observed during winter in stations AC, MC, and MR (Fig. 2C). Water turbidity was always lower than 1.5 NTU at EM (Fig. 2C). The CDOM was higher in the upper region and lower in the downstream area (Fig. 2D). At AC, a CDOM value  10 µmol L−1) (Fig. 2G). Phosphate concentrations were below 1.5 µmol L−1 in the entire estuary, with higher values in the inner stations, and lower ( More

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Comparative characteristics of rations for feeding cattle from different regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the impact of animal feeding types on the faecal microbiotaDue to the huge differences in the natural and climatic conditions of Kazakhstan, animals from different regions of Kazakhstan were enrolled for this study. The difference in soil and climatic conditions of different zones has a significant impact on the type of feeding (Table 1) and the composition of diets, which has a certain effect on the microbiota of intestinal contents and methanogenic archaea in particular.Table 1 Animal diets in different regions of Kazakhstan.Full size tableIn the course of the research work, regions and specific agricultural formations were identified in the context of these regions.In North Kazakhstan, the fodder base is represented by such fodders as alfalfa hay, herb hay, alfalfa haylage, wheat straw, fodder wheat and sunflower cake. The feed is mainly of 2 quality classes. The live weight of cattle ranged from 375 to 480 kg. Feeding type: hay-concentrate and haylage-hay-concentrate.In the Western region, the animals were on the pasture, represented by the green mass of feather grass, hair, sage and tansy. Beef cattle are represented by the following breeds: Kazakh white-headed, Aberdeen-Angus and Hereford. Average live weight is 350–550 kg.In the Southeast region, the fodder base consists of wheat hay, sainfoin + alfalfa hay, mountain hay, herb haylage, corn silage and crushed corn. The feed is mainly of 2 and 3 classes. Hay-concentrate type of feeding is used, as well as pastures. Livestock of Angus, Kazakh white-headed breeds and animals of the local population are kept. Live weight of young animals is in the range of 360–380 kg.The diets of the Southern Region include natural grass hay, alfalfa hay, wheat straw, alfalfa haylage and concentrates. Hay-concentrate type of livestock feeding is widespread in the region. The average live weight of bulls for fattening of the Kazakh white-headed and Angus breeds—360–420 kg with a daily increase in live weight of 870–920 g.The composition of the fecal microbiota depending on the type of feeding is presented in Table 2.Table 2 The content of methanogenic archaea in feces.Full size tableFrom the data of Table 2 it follows that the largest amount of Bacteria was found in the faeces of animals with silage-concentrated feeding (98.59 ± 13.0%), and the smallest—with pasture-concentrated (93.24 ± 3.73%) and haylage—concentrated (93.8 ± 12.41%) types of feeding. The differences amounted to 5.35 and 4.79 absolute percent, respectively. However, the differences were not significant at P  More