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Study sites and swarm characterizationThe survey was conducted in 10 villages in south-western Burkina Faso especially around the district of Bobo-Dioulasso, Santitougou (N11° 17′ 16″, W4° 13′ 04″), Kimidougou (N11° 17′ 53″; W4° 14′ 11″), Nastenga (N10.96871; W003.23477), Zeyama (N10.87638; W 003.26145), Mogobasso (N11° 25′ 31″, W4° 06′ 08″), Synbekuy (N11° 53′ 28″, W3° 44′ 02″), Ramatoulaye (N11° 33′ 39″, W3° 57′ 05″) Syndombokuy (N11° 53′ 06″, W3° 43′ 19″), Lampa (N11.16464; W 003.6374) et Syndounkuy (N11.14541; W 003.05141) (Fig. 1). All villages are located north of Bobo-Dioulasso, on the national road 10 (N10), ranged from 20 and 90 km. The region is characterised by wooded savannah located in south-western Burkina Faso, and the mean annual rainfall is about 1200 mm. The rainy season extends from May to October and the dry season from November to April. Malaria transmission in the area extends from June to November. However, residual transmission may occur beyond this period in specific locations. An. gambiae is the major malaria vector following by An. coluzzii and An. Arabiensis. Villages were chosen to represent similar ecological and entomological settings, they are middle sized and relatively isolated from one another.Figure 1Localization of the study sites in south-western Burkina Faso. This map was created under QGIS version 2.18 Las Palmas. link: https://changelog.qgis.org/en/qgis/version/2.18.0/Full size imageSpray Application Against Mosquito Swarms (SAMS) consisted of spraying diluted insecticide (Actellic 50: tap water with 1:20 concentration) at dusk by trained volunteer teams. They used the innovative technology of targeted swarm spraying with handheld sprayers and conventional broadcast space spray with backpack sprayers to achieve maximum effect. The spraying activities were conducted in eight of the ten villages. The target swarm spray was used in the four villages Kimidougou, Nastenga, Ramatoulaye and Syndombokuy. The broadcast space spray was applied in four other villages, Zeyama, Mogobasso, Lampa and Syndounkuy. The two remaining villages, Santidougou and Synbekuy were chosen as controls (Fig. 1). In each village, the potential swarm markers and the positive swarm sites were identified and geo-referenced using GPS. All concessions also were geo-referenced and labelled using paint.Procedure of the interventionTargeted swam spraying using handheld sprayersTargeted swarm spraying was carried out in four villages. Members of each team and volunteers from the selected villages were trained to target the swarms and apply an appropriate amount of spray each time. After the pre-intervention phase, all swarm sites scattered through the villages were repaired and swarm characteristics recorded. At 30 min before dusk (the estimated swarming time), a volunteer was placed in each compound with a sprayer. The objective of each volunteer was to destroy any swarm in the compound by applying insecticide with the handheld sprayer (Fig. 2A,B). Screening of the compound was continued for about 30 min until it was dark and no mosquitoes were visible. A single operator was able to effectively target 5 to 10 swarms per spray evening, depending on the distribution of swarms across the village. Spraying was carried out for 10 successive days throughout each village. The period of spraying approximately covered the period of pre-imaginal mosquito stages and was renewed after 45 days. The quantity of insecticide used was measured daily, in order to determine with precision the total quantity of insecticide used during targeted spraying.Figure 2Volunteer spraying swarms using handheld sprayers (A,B). Backpack spraying activities (C,D).Full size imageConventional broadcast spraying using Backpack sprayersThe broadcast spraying was also carried out in 4 villages but, unlike the targeted spraying, there was no direct targeting of swarms. At swarming time (estimated around 30 min at dusk) two volunteers with backpack sprayers ran through the entire village along paths between the compounds while spraying insecticide (Fig. 2C,D). As with the targeted spraying procedure, the broadcast spraying was carried out for 10 successive days in all 4 villages simultaneously, and spraying recommenced after 45 days. The quantity of insecticide used was measured daily, in order to determine with precision the total quantity of insecticide used during targeted spraying.Evaluation of the interventionA year prior to the intervention, baseline entomological data was collected in both villages to estimate mosquito density, human biting rate, female insemination rate, age structure of females and entomological inoculation rate29. The same parameters were evaluated immediately before and after intervention. The pre- and post-intervention evaluation of the abovementioned parameters were carried in both control and intervention villages at the same time. In both pre-intervention and post-intervention phases, two methods of mosquito collection were performed in each village, the human landing catch (HLC), indoor and outdoor in 4 houses for 4 successive nights, the pyrethroid spray catch (PSC) in the same10 houses and 10 randomly selected houses. To identify these, all houses in each village were coded and these codes were used to randomly select those to be sampled. All sampled sites were mapped using a global positioning system (GPS). Collected anopheline mosquitoes were sorted by taxonomic status, physiological status, and sex. Approximately, the ovaries of 200 females/month/village (100 females indoor and 100 females outdoor) were dissected to determine the physiological age, and parous females were subsequently subjected to ELISA assays to determine Plasmodium sporozoite rates. Data produced from indoor and outdoor mosquito collections were then used to estimate mosquito densities, their spatial distribution, produce a map identifying hotspots where the highest mosquito densities and biting occurred within the village, female age structure and quantify the intensity of malaria transmission. The impact of the spray was measured to see how it affected each of these parameters in the intervention villages compared to the controls.Statistical analysisThe resting mosquito abundance was assessed as the number of mosquitoes per house, the human biting rate assessed as the number of bites per person per night, the parity rate assessed as the percentage of parous females, and the insemination rate assessed as the percentage of the inseminated females. The list above defined the key entomological parameters to determine the dynamic of An. gambie s.l. populations and malaria transmission. The generalized estimating equation (GEE) method was used to estimate population averaged effect of intervention on various outcome measurements. As the GEE models do not require distributional assumptions but only specification of the mean and variance structure, they are more robust against misspecification of higher-order features of the data, and are useful when the main interest is in population averaged effects of an intervention or treatment. However, because they do not use a full likelihood model, they cannot be used for individual-specific inference30,31. Despite this shortcoming, their robustness to different types of correlation structures in the data (due to temporal ordering of measurements, or other hierarchical structure in data) makes them attractive for analyses of this type. GEE models were run in R version 3.6.232, using the package “geepack”33 for three datasets on insemination and parity rate, number of bites per person per night (NBPN), and density of adult male and female mosquitoes. To clean and plot the data the “tidyverse” family of R packages34 were used.Ethical considerationsThis study did not involve human patients. The full protocol of the study was submitted to the Institutional Ethics Committee of the “Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Sante” for review and approval (A17-2016/CEIRES). In accordance with the approval, presentations of the project were given to the study site villagers and requests for their participation were made. During these visits the objectives, protocol and expected results were explained and discussed, as well as the implications for the households willing to take part in this study. A written consent form was signed or marked with fingerprint by the head of the households before any activity could take place in his compound. Insecticides used in this study are approved for use by the Burkina Faso insecticide regulation authority. More

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Massive drift of pumice along the northeastern coast of Okinawa IslandA large amount of pumice stones reached and was deposited along the northeastern coast of Okinawa Island, that were brought by strong seasonal northeasterly winds (Supplementary Video 1). The pumice was thought to be brought by the Kuroshio countercurrent from sites near the Ogasawara Archipelago 1300 km away. Because the Kuroshio countercurrent is composed of various medium-sized eddies in the ocean, the current does not always flow in one direction and as a continuous flow27,28. The pumice drift was more strongly controlled by the seasonal northwesterly winds to be transported to Okinawa across the Philippine Sea (Fig. 1a). The pumice raft reached the northern part of Okinawa approximately 2 months after the eruption (Figs. 2, 3 and 4). According to a very recent report, the pumice clasts were drifting ashore in Thailand (traveling 4000 km-long distance) across the South China Sea within half a year of this eruption29. Most pumice stones were gray, but some pumice was banded, and others were black reflecting some compositional variation25,29 (Fig. 2d,e). The Kuroshio Current is faster than the Kuroshio countercurrent27, so some pumice clasts have already reached the main island of Japan25. Tracking the dispersal of the pumice will allow a better forecasting model based on observed raft trajectories by considering exact wind effects in the Philippine Sea30.Figure 2An example of a natural beach on Okinawa Island where pumice has washed ashore. (a) Appearance of natural sandy beaches on the northern part of Okinawa Island (Ibu beach, Kunigami Village, 26°75′57.88″ N, 128°32′23.32″ E). Photo was taken on 24 October 2021. Pumice drifted onto the sandy beach and formed a striped pattern. The white-capped waves indicate on the place where the reef edge exist. The white arrow points to the mangrove river estuary corresponding to Fig. 9. (b) Estimation of the pumice sedimentation depth on the original sand beach surface. (c) The high tide zone of the natural sandy beach is covered with pumice pebbles and stones. Yellow arrows indicate black pumice stones. Scale bar: 10 cm. (d, e) Front and back of examples of relatively large pumice stones from the same beach. The left image is mostly light brown, whereas the right image is almost black. Scale bars: 5 cm.Full size imageFigure 3Short-term migration of pumice from beaches as revealed by stationary observations. These four photos were taken at two sites on northern Okinawa Island on two consecutive days, 23 and 24 October 2021. (a, b) A sandy beach along the Sate Coast (26°78′84.56″ N, 128°22′30.57″ E). It was windy on the first day, and pumice stones were washed up with the waves. Almost all the pumice stones were removed from the beach and transported offshore on the following day. The black arrow in photo (a) indicates Cape Hedo, the northernmost tip of Okinawa Island. (c, d) At this gravelly beach (26°80′83.25″ N, 128°23′38.56″ E), pumice fully covers the seawall on the first day, but all of the pumice stones washed away, leaving the original gravels, on the following day. The white arrow in each photo indicates an identical marker stone placed on the beach. Weather data of northern Okinawa (https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/daily_a1.php?prec_no=91&block_no=0901&year=2021&month=10&day=23&view=g_wsp) and tidal data (Naha: 26°13′ N, 127°40′ E) (https://www.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/kaiyou/db/tide/genbo/genbo.php) are provided by Japan Meteorological Agency.Full size imageFigure 4Pumice stones settled by marine organisms. (a) Pumice collected from Ibu beach on 31 October 2021. Two marine benthos coexist close together on a pumice stone. Scale bar: 1 cm. (b) Enlarged image of the Lepas barnacle. Scale bar: 3 mm. (c) Enlarged image of the bryozoan. Scale bar: 3 mm. (d) Stereo microscopic image of pumice pebbles of a few millimeters in diameter collected from Ibu beach on 15 January 2022. The light brown coloration indicates some algal/cyanobacterial growth on the pumice. Scale bar 1 mm. (e) Red autofluorescence was detected from pumice pebbles. Image corresponds to (d). Autofluorescence from microalgae was confirmed by Supplementary Fig. 2. Scale bar 1 mm. (f) Enlarged image of the center of the figure of (e) shows red autofluorescent signals with a diameter of 10–30 µm. Scale bar: 200 µm.Full size imageChanges in the coastal landscape: natural beaches and estuariesMarine calcifiers, including corals, calcareous algae, and foraminifers, produce white sandy beaches on Okinawa Island. However, the gray pumice drifting ashore changed the white sand beach, especially along the northeastern coastline. We observed several lines of pumice aggregations, suggesting that pumice was brought ashore by wavefronts several times produced by a strong north wind at the tide lines (Supplementary Video 1; Fig. 2a). At the same sampling site, the thickest depth of beached pumice was more than 30 cm (Fig. 2b; Supplementary Video 2). Most of the pumice stones were from 0.5 cm to 3 cm in diameter, with a few black pumice stones included (Fig. 2c: yellow arrow). Pumice stones arrived at the estuaries of some brackish rivers (Fig. 8, Supplementary Fig. 1a) and mangrove forests in northwest Okinawa (Fig. 9).Pumice stones and pumice rafts show dynamic behavior in a short period. We captured photographs 24 h apart at two positions on the shore of Okinawa, which allowed us to compare the pumice dynamics during this period (Fig. 3). Within that time frame, there were two high tides, and the tide level changed by up to 170 cm. As seen in Fig. 3a, on the first day, the coast was covered with pumice, and floating pumice could be seen on the seafront. The north wind was strong that day, as shown by the relatively high waves near the shore as well as white‐crested waves near the reef edge. By the following day, most of the pumice had been moved offshore by tides and winds (Fig. 3b), indicating that newly beached pumice raft deposits were removed quickly from open beach areas. At another site on a gravelly beach, pumice fully covered the seawall on the first day, but almost all of the pumice stones were washed away, leaving the original gravels, on the following day (Fig. 3c,d). Japan Meteorological Agency (Oku station: 232 m above sea level, latitude 26°50.1, longitude 128°16.3′) reported that northerly winds were blowing (mean wind speed: 3.4 m/s) on 23rd October in northern Okinawa. The following day, the wind direction changed to the east-southeast; blowing offshore (mean wind speed: 2.9 m/s), resulting in the dramatic removal of pumice form the coast (Fig. 3). These observations indicate that surface winds rather than ocean currents had a strong influence on the raft trajectory and residence time on beaches, and are consistent with past research5. These observations lead us to expect that the pumice rafts will disappear from the coast of Okinawa fairly quickly, but in fact, there have been many cases where they have come back again in a few days. Although the overall amount of pumice drifting has been decreasing, a small amount of pumice has been drifting in coastal area of Okinawa in May, 202231. It is unlikely that large amounts of pumice will drift repeatedly throughout Okinawa Prefecture as reported in this report, but it should be noted that detached pumice material remains in beach and river runoff.Biofouling of sessile organisms on pumice arriving to OkinawaIt is noteworthy that the pumice rafts traveled over the deep Philippine Sea for over 2 months, and on arrival in Okinawa there was little to no biofouling of the pumice (Fig. 2). Some stranded pumices observed on Okinawa beaches had become habitats for sessile organisms (Fig. 4), as reported in previous studies1,2,3,4,5,6,29. Goose barnacles (Lepas sp.) without external damage to the shell were the most abundant species observed on the pumice (Fig. 4b). Lepas is a common biofouling taxon distributed globally and plays a role in biofouling as a foundation organism. The shell growth rate is more than 1 mm/day in some Lepas species32 suggesting that the Lepas had been growing on the pumice for about two weeks. Measurements of the shell size of Lepas attached to the pumice collections conducted in the same area (Supplementary Video 2) showed a bias toward larger sizes in the second collection (5.92 ± 3.86 mm (average ± S.D.), n = 75, 13 November 2021) than in the first one (3.43 ± 1.08 mm, n = 21, 31 October 2021), and significant differences were detected between the measurement periods (Mann–Whitney U test, p  More

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