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Effect of warming on physical and chemical conditionsThe water temperature in the warmed treatment was increased by 2.87 ± 0.20 °C in spring and 3.04 ± 0.08 °C in fall, compared to the control (Fig. 1a,b, Table 1). The average temperature in the control treatment, throughout the duration of the experiment, was about 4 °C cooler in spring (14.84 ± 0.03 °C) than in fall (19.01 ± 0.02 °C). In spring, the temperature naturally increased by approximately 4.19 °C from day (d) 10, until the end of the experiment, whereas it remained relatively constant in the fall experiment. It displayed higher diurnal variations in spring than in fall: over the course of the experiments, daily temperature variation ranged from 0.87 to 1.98 °C in spring and from 0.23 to 1.12 °C in fall. The average Daily Light Integral (DLI) in the control treatment, was almost twice as high in the spring experiment (7.93 ± 0.61 mol m−2 d−1) than during the fall (4.61 ± 0.52 mol m−2 d−1) (Fig. 1c,d). Warming did not significantly alter the DLI in fall (Table 1); however, the DLI could not be measured in the warm mesocosms in spring, owing to technical problems.Figure 1Time series of physical and chemical variables. Water temperature (a, b), Daily Light Integral (DLI, c, d), ammonium (NH4+, e, f), nitrates (NO3− + NO2−, g, h), orthophosphate (PO43−, i, j), silicate (SiO2, k, l) concentrations, and N/P ratio (m, n) over the course of the spring (a, c,e, g, i, k, m) and fall (b, d, f, h, j, l, n) experiments in the control (black) and the warmed (orange) treatments. Error bars represent range of observation for the two mesocosms per treatment in spring and the standard deviation for the three mesocosms per treatment in fall. Dotted lines represent the missing data on d10 of the fall experiment due to bad weather conditions. Due to technical difficulties, DLI could not be calculated in the warmed mesocosms of the spring experiment.Full size imageTable 1 Summary of the p values obtained by Repeated Measures Analyses Of VAriance (RM-ANOVA, with treatment as fixed factor and time as random factor) comparing physical parameters and nutrient concentrations in the warmed and control mesocosms.Full size tableNutrient concentrations were measured daily in all mesocosms (Fig. 1, Table 1). Ammonium (NH4+) concentrations were higher in spring than in fall in the controls (0.45 ± 0.08 µM, and 0.41 ± 0.05 µM, respectively). Ammonium concentrations were significantly different, between the control and warmed mesocosms, only at the end of the fall experiment (warmed with a mean of 0.58 ± 0.23 µM, between d11–17; and control with a mean of 0.21 ± 0.09 µM, between d11–17). In contrast, ammonium concentrations did not vary between the control and warmed mesocosms in spring (Table 1). Cohen’s effect size (d) was used to evaluate the magnitude of the effect of warming. Regarding ammonium concentrations, the values were ten times larger in spring than in fall.The nitrate + nitrite (NO3− + NO2−) concentrations in the control treatments were higher in the spring, compared to the fall experiment (0.71 ± 0.08 µM and 0.23 ± 0.02 µM, respectively). Moreover, warming had different effects, depending on the experiment. In spring, the nitrate + nitrite concentrations were significantly higher in the warmed mesocosms from d8 until the end of the experiment, with an average difference of 540.5% between the warmed and control mesocosms, corresponding to a very large d. In fall, nitrate + nitrite concentrations were significantly lower in the warmed mesocosms than in the control, with an average difference of 20.4%, and a medium-sized d.Similar to the nitrate + nitrite concentrations, the orthophosphate (PO43−) concentrations in the control treatment were higher in spring (0.55 ± 0.07 µM and 0.17 ± 0.01 µM, respectively) than in fall. The concentrations were negatively affected by warming throughout the spring experiment, with an average decrease of 9.3%. However, the largest negative effect of experimental warming was observed at the end of fall, with an average decrease of 16.7%, between d15 and d17.Contrary to the nitrate + nitrite and orthophosphate concentrations, the silicate (SiO2) concentrations in the control treatments were, on average, lower in spring (3.31 ± 0.18 µM and 10.42 ± 0.15 µM, respectively) than in fall. Warming had a significant positive effect during the second part of the spring experiment (from d10 to d17), with average concentrations being 27.8% higher in the warmed mesocosms, than in the control. In contrast, the strongest effect of warming on silicate concentrations was observed at the end of the fall experiment, when the silicate concentrations were significantly lower in the warmed mesocosms, by an average of 10.8%, between d15 and d17.The N/P ratio, calculated as the sum of nitrate, nitrite and ammonium concentrations divided by orthophosphate concentration, was 1.99 and 2.39 on average in the control treatment of the spring and fall experiments, respectively (Fig. 1m,n). It was significantly higher over the entire experiments in the warmed treatment by on average 191.5% and 58.8% in spring and fall, respectively (Table 1). In fall, the highest difference between treatments was seen during the second half of the experiment, when the ratio was significantly higher by 133.5% from day 11 to 17.Effects of warming on gross primary production and respiration rates derived from oxygen sensor dataIn the spring experiment, daily GPP varied between 0.19 ± 0.01 and 1.72 ± 0.15 gO2 m−3 d−1 in the control mesocosms (Fig. 2A). It increased during the first half of the experiment (d2–d10), then decreased toward the end of the experiment. In the fall experiment, the daily GPP was lower than what was observed in the control mesocosms in spring and varied between 0.12 ± 0.02 and 0.96 ± 0.16 gO2 m−3 d−1 (Fig. 2B). In spring, warming significantly reduced GPP by 50.9% over the entire experiment, while in fall, warming enhanced GPP by 21.1% over the entire experiment, 32.3% from d4 to d7, and 44.1% from d12 to d17 (Table 2). In spring, when GPP was normalized by the chl-a measured by the high-frequency sensors, it was not significantly different between the treatments, over the entire experiment (Fig. 2C, Table 2). However, it was significantly higher (138%) in the warmed treatment, during the second half of the experiment (d10– d17). In fall, GPP normalized by the chl-a was also significantly enhanced (12%) by warming (Fig. 2D, Table 2).Figure 2Plankton oxygen metabolism parameters. Gross Primary Production (GPP, A, B), GPP normalized by the chlorophyll-a fluorescence (C, D), Respiration (R, E, F), R normalized by the chlorophyll-a fluorescence (G, H), and GPP:R ratio (I, J) in the control (black) and warmed (orange) treatments. Error bars represent range of observation for the two mesocosms per treatment in spring and the standard deviation for the three mesocosms per treatment in fall. In the spring experiment, GPP: Chl-a and R: Chl-a could not be estimated on d1 and d2.Full size imageTable 2 Summary table of the p values and the F-values obtained with the RM-ANOVA (with treatment as fixed factor and time as random factor) comparing the chl-a fluorescence, µ, l, the µ:l ratio, and pigment concentrations in the warmed and in the control treatments over the entire spring and fall experiments or over specific periods defined after trends observed in the data.Full size tableDaily R varied between 0.27 ± 0.02 and 1.92 ± 0.20 gO2 m−3 d−1 in the spring control mesocosms (Fig. 2E). Similar to the daily GPP, it increased during the first half of the experiment (d2– d10), with a strong increase between d8 and d10, before decreasing slowly until the end of the experiment. In the fall experiment, the daily R was lower than in spring, varying from 0.19 ± 0.02 and 1.09 ± 0.14 gO2 m−3 d−1, in the control mesocosms (Fig. 2F). Warming significantly reduced the daily R by an average of 47.9% in spring, while no significant differences were found in fall (Table 2). During both experiments, when daily R was normalized by chl-a, it was not significantly different between treatments over the entire experimental period (Figs. 2G,H), but it was significantly enhanced by warming during the second half of the experiments, by 172% and 49.6%, from d10–17 in spring, and d11–17 in fall, respectively (Table 2).The GPP:R ratio was on average 1.01 and 1.08 in the spring and fall control treatments, respectively (Fig. 2I,J). Consequently, because warming decreased GPP and R to a similar extent in spring, it did not significantly change the GPP:R ratio. Warming significantly increased GPP:R, by an average of 32% in fall (Table 2).Effects of warming on phytoplankton biomass (chlorophyll-a), growth, and loss rates derived from the chlorophyll-a sensor dataThe chl-a fluorescence data was measured using high-frequency sensors, which were inter-calibrated before and after the experiments, and were corrected by the chl-a concentration measured daily by HPLC (see “Methods”). It is hereafter referred to as chl-a. In the spring experiment, the daily chl-a was 5.28 ± 0.21 µg L−1 in the control mesocosms (Fig. 3a,c). A phytoplankton bloom dynamic was observed, with increasing concentrations from d2 to d10, reaching a maximum value of 8.62 ± 0.15 µg L−1, and decreasing concentrations from d10 to d17. The average daily chl-a was lower in fall than in the spring experiment (4.30 ± 0.59 µg L−1) (Fig. 3b,d), and displayed a relatively flat dynamic during the entire experiment, with maximum values on d8 (5.53 ± 0.58 µg L−1).Figure 3Phytoplankton chlorophyll-a, growth and loss rates. High-frequency chlorophyll-a data, uncorrected for Non Photochemical Quenching (NPQ) (a, b), daily average chlorophyll-a data corrected for the NPQ(c, d), phytoplankton growth rate (µ, e, f), loss rate (l, g, h), and µ:l ratio (i, j) in the control (black) and warmed (orange) treatments. Error bars represent range of observation for the two mesocosms per treatment in spring and the standard deviation for the three mesocosms per treatment in fall. In the spring experiment, µ and l could not be estimated on d1 and d12 and, for the latter, the missing data are represented as dotted lines.Full size imageWarming significantly reduced chl-a in both experiments (Table 2): an average of 69.5% from d5 to the end of the spring, and 31.7% from d8 to 15, in the fall experiment. Conversely, warming significantly enhanced chl-a concentrations at the beginning of the fall experiment (19.4% between d2 and d6). Generally, the magnitude of the effect was larger in spring than in fall (Table 2).In the control treatment, µ was higher in spring than in fall (0.44 ± 0.04 d−1 and 0.32 ± 0.05 d−1, respectively; Fig. 3e,f). During both seasons, the maximum µ was observed during the first half of the experiment (spring d7, 0.99 ± 0.01 d−1; fall d4, 0.61 ± 0.03 d−1). Warming enhanced µ by an average of 18.3% and 28.1%, over the entire spring and fall experiments, respectively, and by an average of 56.8% and 50.9%, respectively, from d8 until the end of the experiment (Table 2). The effect size was higher in fall than in spring (Table 2). However, contrary to the general trend of the entire experiment, during spring, warming significantly reduced µ during the first part of the experiment (d2–d7), with an 18.8% mean difference between the treatments.In contrast to µ, l was almost similar between the seasons, with average values of 0.39 ± 0.04 d−1 and 0.40 ± 0.07 d−1, in the control treatments for spring and fall, respectively (Fig. 3g,h). In the spring experiment, warming had a positive effect on the mean l across the study period (37.1%), and even more from d8 to d17 (59.1%), which was larger than the positive effect found for µ. The effect size of warming was not as large in fall, and l was significantly higher in the warmed treatment, although only in the middle of the experiment (20.4% from d7 to d11).When comparing µ and l, the results showed that in spring, µ was higher than l in the control treatment, during the first part of the experiment (d2–d9), and lower during the latter half of the experiment (d10–d17). Warming significantly decreased the µ:l ratio by 28.9%, during the first half of the experiment (D 3–8, Fig. 3i, Table 2), whereas no significant effect was observed in the rest of the experiment. In the fall control treatment, the µ:l ratio was generally lower than that of the spring control (Fig. 3j). Contrary to what was observed in the spring warming, this ratio significantly increased by an average of 92.9%, in the second half of the experiment (d11–d17, Table 2).Effects of warming on phytoplankton pigment concentrationsPhytoplankton pigment composition varied between seasons (Fig. 4). In the spring control treatment, the predominant pigments were fucoxanthin and 19′-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin (19′-HF), which are mostly associated with diatoms (1.14 ± 0.10 µg L−1) and prymnesiophytes (19′-HF, 2.91 ± 0.14 µg L−1)23,24, respectively (Figs. 4A,B,G,H). The other pigments that were present included peridinin (0.18 ± 0.01 µg L−1), Chl-b (0.14 ± 0.01 µg L−1), zeaxanthin (0.08 ± 0.01 µg L−1), and the specific accessory pigment prasinoxanthin (0.06 ± 0.01 µg L−1), which are associated with dinoflagellates, green algae, cyanobacteria, and prasinophytes, respectively (Figs. 4C–F,I,J)23,24,25.Figure 4Phytoplankton pigment concentrations. Daily pigment concentrations (µg L−1) in the control (black) and warmed (orange) treatments for the spring (A–F) and fall (G–J) experiments. Error bars represent range of observation for the two mesocosms per treatment in spring and the standard deviation for the three mesocosms per treatment in fall. Dotted lines represent the missing data on d10 of the fall experiment due to bad weather conditions. (A, G) fucoxanthin; (B, H) 19′-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin; (C, I) zeaxanthin; (D, J) chlorophyll-b; (E) peridinin, and (F) prasinoxanthin. Corresponding phytoplankton functional groups are indicated in parentheses.Full size imageIn the fall control treatment, the dominant pigments were the cyanobacteria-associated zeaxanthin (1.78 ± 0.22 µg L−1), the diatom-associated fucoxanthin (1.07 ± 0.27 µg L−1), the green algae-associated Chl-b (0.69 ± 0.14 µg L−1), and the prymnesiophyte-associated 19′-HF (0.68 ± 0.16 µg L−1). Among the main pigments that were identified in the spring experiment, peridinin and prasinoxanthin were either not detected or detected at negligible concentrations in the fall experiment, whereas lutein was detected in fall but not in spring (data not shown).Warming had seasonal effects on pigment concentrations (Table 2). In the spring experiment, warming had a large and significant negative effect on 19′-HF and zeaxanthin concentrations, with mean concentrations decreasing by 75.4% and 75.2%, respectively. Conversely, warming had moderately significant positive effects on peridinin concentration, which increased by an average of 101%.In the fall experiment, warming had a significant negative effect on Chl-b concentration, which decreased by 19.5%, and on zeaxanthin concentration, which significantly decreased in the middle of the experiment (43.4% from d11 to d15). In contrast, a significant positive effect was observed on fucoxanthin concentration, which increased by 210.7%, during the second part of the experiment (between d13 and d17).Relationships between plankton processes, pigment concentrations and environmental parametersPrincipal component analyses (PCA) were used to project plankton processes, pigment concentrations and environmental parameters in a multidimensional space in order to illustrate relationships among variables in both experiments (Fig. 5). For both experiments, GPP and R were clustered together along the first PCA axis, although they appeared closer in spring than in fall (Fig. 5A,B). Conversely, µ was close to ammonium for both experiments, to silicate in spring and to nitrate and nitrite in fall; and l was part of this cluster in spring but not in fall. Concerning phytoplankton pigment composition, in spring, zeaxanthin, associated with cyanobacteria, and 19′-HF, associated with prymnesiophytes, were part of a group together with temperature (Fig. 5C). Similarly, prasinoxanthin, associated with prasinophytes, and Chl-b, associated with green algae, were grouped with DLI and orthophosphate. Finally, peridinin, associated with dinoflagellates, and silicate were clustered together and opposed to fucoxanthin, which is associated with diatoms. In fall, zeaxanthin and Chl-b, representing cyanobacteria and green algae, were part of a group opposed to N-nutrients and temperature, while fucoxanthin was opposed to DLI, silicate and orthophosphate (Fig. 5D).Figure 5Principal component analyses (PCA) of logarithm response ratio (LRR) of plankton processes (A, B) and pigment concentrations (C, D) with environmental parameters for the spring (A, C) and fall (B, D) experiments. GPP: Gross Primary Production, R: Respiration, µ: Phytoplankton growth rate, l: Phytoplankton loss rate, Chl-b: Chlorophyll-b, 19′-HF: 19′-Hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin, Fuco: Fucoxanthin, Prasino: Prasinoxanthin, Zea: Zeaxanthin, DLI: Daily Light Integral.Full size imageTo evaluate specific relationships between phytoplankton processes, environmental variables, and phytoplankton community composition, ordinary least squares linear relationships were assessed for the effects of warming (expressed as the logarithmic response ratio) on GPP, R, µ, and l, nutrient concentrations, DLI, and pigment concentrations (Fig. 6). A significant positive relationship was found between the effects of warming on GPP versus R, and µ versus l (Fig. 6A,B). Moreover, the effect of warming on µ was positively and linearly related to the effects of warming on ammonium in both seasons (Fig. 6C), and to nitrate + nitrite concentrations in spring (Fig. 6D). There was no relationship between the effects of µ on pigment concentrations in the spring experiment, but its effects were positively correlated with the diatom-associated pigment fucoxanthin in fall (Fig. 6E). Similarly, R was positively correlated with fucoxanthin in fall (Fig. 6F). In contrast, significant negative relationships were found between the effects of warming on µ, Chl-b, and zeaxanthin, the pigments associated with green algae and cyanobacteria, respectively (Fig. 6G,H). Similarly, the effect of warming on R was negatively correlated to orthophosphate (Fig. 6I), and the effect on GPP to nitrate + nitrite and peridinin concentrations (Fig. 6J,K).Figure 6Linear relationships between the effect of warming on plankton processes, environment variables and pigment concentrations. Ordinary least squares linear relationships between the effect of warming, expressed as the log response ratio, on GPP, R, µ, and l, and the effect of warming on environmental and pigment variables for the spring (blue circles) and fall (green squares) experiments. Relationships were individually assessed for each experiment. Only statistically significant relationships (p  More

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These authors contributed equally: Gábor Pozsgai, Ibtissem Ben Fekih.State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, ChinaGábor Pozsgai, Ibtissem Ben Fekih, Jie Zhang & Minsheng YouJoint international Research Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, 350002, ChinaGábor Pozsgai, Gábor L. Lövei & Minsheng YouCE3C – Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Azorean Biodiversity Group and Universidade dos Açores, Angra do Heroísmo, 9700-042, Azores, PortugalGábor PozsgaiInstitute of Environmental Microbiology, College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, ChinaIbtissem Ben Fekih & Christopher RensingBasic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, ChinaMarkus V. KohnenLaboratoire de Biologie et de Physiologie des Organismes, Faculté des Sciences Biologiques, Université des Sciences et de la Technologie Houari Boumediène, BP 32 El Alia, Alger, 16111, AlgeriaSaid AmraniDuna-Ipoly National Park Directorate, Költő u. 21, H-1121, Budapest, HungarySándor BércesJuhász-Nagy Pál Doctoral School, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, H-4032, Debrecen, HungarySándor BércesDepartment of Zoology, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Nagykovácsi út 26-30, H-1029, Budapest, HungaryDávid FülöpFujian University Key Laboratory for Plant-Microbe Interaction, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, ChinaMohammed Y. M. JaberDepartment of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, DenmarkNicolai Vitt MeylingDepartment of Algology and Mycology Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Łódź, Banacha 12/16, PL-90-237, Łódź, PolandMalgorzata Ruszkiewicz-MichalskaDepartment of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, Debrecen, H-4032, HungaryWalter P. PflieglerFujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, ChinaFrancisco Javier Sánchez-GarcíaÁrea de Biología Animal, Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, 30100, SpainFrancisco Javier Sánchez-GarcíaDepartment of Agroecology, Aarhus University, Flakkebjerg Research Centre, Forsøgsvej 1, DK-4200, Slagelse, DenmarkGábor L. Lövei More