Ecology

AbstractSome teleosts, including yellow goosefish Lophius litulon, spawn gelatinous egg masses, but the biological function of the gelatinous matrix remains poorly understood due to limited experimental access. This study tested whether the gelatinous membrane of L. litulon egg masses, which naturally float just below the sea surface in coastal areas, protects eggs and larvae from abiotic stress. Salinity stress experiments using 782 and 605 eggs were conducted. Embryos retained within gelatinous membranes maintained high survival and normal growth after 45 and 90 h of exposure to 50% diluted salinity, whereas those removed showed significant reductions (two-way ANOVA; p < 0.001 and = 0.015, respectively). Additionally, experiments using 449 and 599 larvae examined responses to 24-hour exposure under desiccation and elevated temperature conditions (2–3 °C above the appropriate temperature). The gelatinous matrix retained moisture, showing stable survival and growth (two-way ANOVA; p = 0.838 and 0.804, respectively), although heat stress reduced survival (two-way ANOVA; p < 0.001). These results indicate that the gelatinous matrix offers physical protection from some types of environmental stress, likely an adaptive trait for survival in variable coastal habitats. This study provides the first experimental evidence of such protective functions in gelatinous egg masses of marine fishes.

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Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in *Figshare* at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.30071737.v2.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsWe are grateful to Dr. Y. Takeya (Aomori Prefectural government), Dr. K. Noro and Mr. R. Suzuki (Aomori Prefectural Industrial Technology Research Center Fisheries Institute) for their support and valuable suggestions. We thank to Mr. Y. Kindaichi (Kazamaura Fisheries Cooperative Association), Mr. G. Komamine (Komamine Corporation) the staff of Kazamaura Village Government and Laboratory of Marine Bioresources Ecology of Hokkaido University Faculty of Fisheries for their kind assistance in collection of specimens. This work was conducted under permits from Hokkaido University Manual for Implementing Animal Experimentation. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP23KJ0049.FundingThis work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP23KJ0049.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsGraduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3–1–1, Minato, Hakodate, 041–8611, Hokkaido, JapanTomoya Ishikawa & Yuta EnoFaculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3–1–1, Minato, Hakodate, 041–8611, Hokkaido, JapanMitsuhiro Nakaya & Tetsuya TakatsuAuthorsTomoya IshikawaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarMitsuhiro NakayaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarYuta EnoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarTetsuya TakatsuView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributions**Tomoya Ishikawa: ** Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Resources.**Mitsuhiro Nakaya: ** Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – review & editing, Resources.**Yuta Eno: ** Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing – review & editing.**Tetsuya Takatsu: ** Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleIshikawa, T., Nakaya, M., Eno, Y. et al. Egg mass gelatinous envelopes of yellow goosefish Lophius litulon protect the internal eggs and larvae from salinity stress and desiccation.
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KeywordsAnglerfishEarly life historyEnvironmental stressGelatinous egg massHydrogelLarvae More

AbstractThe species is often described as the basic unit of biology, yet defining what constitutes a species has been a long-standing challenge. The advent of modern molecular techniques in conjunction with advanced analytical approaches now provide new opportunities for the robust and repeatable delineation of taxa from previously difficult to assess species complexes. Using marine mussels of the genus Mytilus (smooth-shelled blue mussels of the globally distributed Mytilus edulis species complex) we tested regionally differentiated putative taxa from the Northern and Southern hemispheres using a Bayesian species delimitation model that infers species trees. Using a multilocus panel of 54 single nucleotide polymorphic loci (SNPs) we tested four alternative hypotheses against the hypothesis of the currently recognised taxonomy to better understand the evolutionary history and the contemporary species of this complex. Only one model provided a better fit than the contemporary taxonomy model: this best fit model included the three reference Northern hemisphere taxa (M. edulis, M. galloprovincialis, M. trossulus) plus M. chilensis (Chile), M. platensis (Argentina), M. planulatus (Australia) and the newly recognised M. aoteanus (New Zealand). Phylogenetic reconstruction based on our nuclear DNA-based SNP data suggests that M. trossulus is the oldest of the modern smooth-shelled blue mussels, that a first migration event from the north to the south occurred that gave rise to M. platensis and M. chilensis in South America, subsequently that M. edulis and M. galloprovincialis diverged in the Northern hemisphere, and that subsequently again there was a second migration event from the north that gave rise to M. planulatus in Australia and M. aoteanus in New Zealand. Our findings provide very strong support for earlier mitochondrial DNA-based phylogenetic findings for globally distributed blue mussels and also help to clarify uncertainty about the number of north-to-south migration events that gave rise to important Mytilus speciation events in South America and in Australasia.

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Data availability

All data analysed during this study are included in this published article. Additionally, the DNA sequences are stored in GenBank (KT713378–82; HQ257471; KJ871039–57; KT713368–74).
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsWe thank the CIPRES Science Gateway for providing access to its platform, which facilitated several of our analyses.FundingThis work was funded by the projects FONDECYT 1230212 (JT) and FONDECYT 1251077 (POC).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsCentro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Universidad Andres Bello, Quintay, 2340000, ChilePablo A. OyarzúnDepartamento de Acuicultura y Recursos Agroalimentarios, Universidad de Los Lagos, Av. Fuchslocher 1305, Osorno, ChileJorge E. ToroInstitute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, Sopot, 81-712, PolandMałgorzata Zbawicka & Roman WenneSchool of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington, 6140, New ZealandJonathan P. A. GardnerAuthorsPablo A. OyarzúnView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarJorge E. ToroView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarMałgorzata ZbawickaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarRoman WenneView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarJonathan P. A. GardnerView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsP.A.O.: Conceptualisation, methodology, and writing—review and editing. J.E.T.: Investigation and validation. M.Z.: Investigation and validation. R.W.: Investigation and validation. J.P.A.G.: Conceptualisation, and writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Pablo A. Oyarzún.Ethics declarations

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Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleOyarzún, P.A., Toro, J.E., Zbawicka, M. et al. Global species delimitation of smooth-shelled blue mussels in the Mytilus edulis complex.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-29759-9Download citationReceived: 05 September 2025Accepted: 19 November 2025Published: 12 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-29759-9Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsCryptic speciesMolluscsSNPsSpeciationTaxonomy More

AbstractRare earth elements (REEs) are emerging contaminants, but little is known about their soil bioavailability and physiological effects on crops. This study investigated the effects of cerium (Ce) and yttrium (Y) at 0, 25, 50, and 100 mg kg− 1 on pak choi (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (L.) Hanelt) grown in high clay and low clay soils. Measurements included Ce and Y uptake, biomass, photosynthetic pigments, respiratory activity, and proline concentration. The addition of Ce and Y was associated with elevated Ca, Mg, Fe, and Al in the shoots, supported by the overlapping ion mappings of these elements in the leaves with laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The root and shoot biomass of the crop in the high clay soil significantly (p < 0.05) increased from the control to 25 mg Ce kg− 1 and 25 mg Y kg− 1, respectively. In both soils, Y was more toxic to photosynthetic pigments than Ce, while respiratory activity was sensitive to both Ce and Y, leading to reduced proline levels. This study demonstrated that the soil bioavailability and physiological responses of the tested crop to Ce and Y were controlled by REEs type and soil texture.

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The data that support this study will be made available upon reasonable request.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsThe authors would like to thank the National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan, for financially supporting this research under Grant No. MOST 108-2313-B-002-040-MY3. The authors acknowledge the mass spectrometry technical research services from the Consortia of Key Technologies, National Taiwan University.FundingThis study was funded by the National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan (Grant No. MOST 108-2313-B-002-040-MY3).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Agricultural Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, TaiwanPo-Hui Wu, Louis Grillet & Zeng-Yei HseuDepartment of Agronomy, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, TaiwanYa-Fen LinAgricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, TaiwanKuo-Chen YehAuthorsPo-Hui WuView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarLouis GrilletView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarYa-Fen LinView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarKuo-Chen YehView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarZeng-Yei HseuView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsP. H.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing – Original Draft, Visualization. L.: Writing – Review and Editing. Y. F.: Resources, Writing – Review and Editing. K. C.: Resources, Writing – Review and Editing, Visualization. Z. Y.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Writing – Review and Editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Zeng-Yei Hseu.Ethics declarations

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Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleWu, PH., Grillet, L., Lin, YF. et al. Physiological responses of pak choi (Brassica Rapa subsp. Chinensis (L.) Hanelt) to cerium and yttrium in two acidic soils with contrasting textures.
Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32493-xDownload citationReceived: 31 August 2025Accepted: 10 December 2025Published: 12 December 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32493-xShare this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy shareable link to clipboard
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KeywordsBioavailabilityPhotosynthetic pigmentsProlineRare earth elementsRespiratory activity More

AbstractSoil organic matter (SOM) has a key role in the carbon (C) cycle and consists of particulate organic matter (POM) and mineral-associated organic matter (MAOM), which differ in stability and turnover. This study investigates C dynamics and microbial abundance at two alpine sites (1526 and 2500 m a.s.l). Soil samples were fractionated, and the C:N ratio, pH, and microbial abundances were analysed. While the MAOM/POM ratio remained stable across sites, the higher-elevation soil, dominated by N-poor alpine graminoids, showed an increased C:N ratio, consistent with reduced decomposition and transfer of litter into mineral-associated pools under colder, more acidic conditions. Bacteria predominated in MAOM, supporting their role in SOM stabilisation, whereas fungal abundance was highest in MAOM only at 2500 m. Fungal abundance remained stable across sites, indicating greater tolerance to low temperatures and pH compared to bacteria, which declined at higher altitudes. This suggests fungi play a key role in decomposition in colder environments. Correlations between fungi and bacteria were context-dependent: negative in MAOM and positive in POM, but only at 2500 m. These findings highlight how the composition and stability of SOM and microbial abundance differ between fractions and at different elevations, underscoring the value of integrating microbial data with SOM fractionation to better understand alpine soil C dynamics.

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Download referencesAcknowledgementsWe want to offer special thanks to Dr. Angela Augusti, who, although no longer with us, continues to inspire us through her dedication and contributions to research. The authors are grateful to Fondazione Montagna Sicura (http://www.fondazionemontagnasicura.org/en/), which made the realization of this study possible.FundingThis study was supported by the Italian Ministry of University and Research, PRIN 2020 (Projects of Relevant National Interest), Prot. 20204KF4RW, CUP: I53C21000140001 and by the Open Access Publishing Fund of the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano.Author informationAuthor notesIlaria Fracasso and Lizzie Foley contributed equally to this work.Authors and AffiliationsFaculty of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Piazza Università 5, 39100, Bolzano, ItalyIlaria Fracasso, Lizzie Foley, Raphael Tiziani, Leonardo Montagnani, Luigimaria Borruso & Tanja MimmoDepartment of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Science, University of Perugia, 06123, Perugia, ItalyPietro BuzziniResearch Institute on Terrestrial Ecosystems, National Research Council, 05010, Porano, ItalyAngela Augusti & Olga GavrichkovaNational Biodiversity Future Center, 90133, Palermo, ItalyOlga GavrichkovaDepartment of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, 01100, Viterbo, ItalyLaura ZucconiCompetence Centre for Plant Health, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, 39100, Bolzano, ItalyRaphael Tiziani, Luigimaria Borruso & Tanja MimmoAuthorsIlaria FracassoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarLizzie FoleyView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarRaphael TizianiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarPietro BuzziniView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarAngela AugustiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarOlga GavrichkovaView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarLaura ZucconiView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarLeonardo MontagnaniView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarLuigimaria BorrusoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarTanja MimmoView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsI.F. and L.F. contributed equally to the present study (first authors) by conceptualizing the work, conducting the investigation, performing formal analysis, curating the data, preparing visualizations, and writing the original draft of the manuscript. R.T. and P.B. contributed to resource provision and participated in reviewing and editing the manuscript. A.A., O.G., L.Z., and L.M. contributed resources and assisted in reviewing and editing the manuscript. L.B. supervised the research, contributed to the methodology and resource acquisition, and participated in manuscript review and editing. T.M. conceptualized the work, supervised the project, contributed to the methodology and resource provision, and participated in reviewing and editing the manuscript. All authors discussed and commented on the methods and results and contributed to the final version of the paper.Corresponding authorsCorrespondence to
Ilaria Fracasso or Tanja Mimmo.Ethics declarations

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleFracasso, I., Foley, L., Tiziani, R. et al. Soil organic carbon fractions and their associated bacterial and fungal abundance in alpine ecosystems.
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KeywordsCarbon fractionsPOMMAOMSoil ecologyFungal abundanceBacterial abundance More

AbstractBacterial growth dynamics, typically represented by growth curves, are fundamental yet complex features of living populations. Traditional analyses focusing on specific parameters often overlook the full temporal patterns of growth. Here, we systematically investigated how genomic and environmental factors shape bacterial growth dynamics by analyzing 870 growth curves from five Escherichia coli strains with varying genome sizes cultured in 29 chemically defined media. Using dynamic time warping, clustering, and gradient boosting decision trees, we found that environmental components, especially glucose, primarily determine overall growth curve patterns, while genome size governs detailed growth parameters such as lag time, growth rate, and carrying capacity. Notably, finer clustering revealed increased genomic influence and decreased environmental impact, suggesting a hierarchical interaction where the environment modulates broad growth behavior and the genome fine-tunes specific growth responses. These findings provide insights into the coordinated roles of genome and environment in bacterial population dynamics, advancing our understanding of microbial growth regulation.

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All data generated or analyzed in this study are available within the paper and its Supplementary Information.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsWe thank the National BioResource Project, National Institute of Genetics (Shizuoka, Japan), for providing the E. coli strains and Issei Nishimura for his experimental assistance in acquiring the growth curves.FundingThis work was supported by the JSPS KAKENHI grant number 25K02259 (to BWY).Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsSchool of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, JapanJiarun Gong & Bei-Wen YingMiCS, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, JapanBei-Wen YingAuthorsJiarun GongView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarBei-Wen YingView author publicationsSearch author on:PubMed Google ScholarContributionsJG conducted data mining, validation, and drafted the manuscript. BWY conceived the research, experiments, and rewrote the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Bei-Wen Ying.Ethics declarations

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleGong, J., Ying, BW. Data-driven analysis reveals distinct genomic and environmental contributions to bacterial growth curves.
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KeywordsBacterial growth dynamicsTime series data miningGenome-environment interactionDynamic time warpingMachine learning in biology More

Abstract

Many species are composed of two or more genetically distinct clades, indicating ongoing or past evolutionary divergence. Often however, there are no obvious morphological differences between clades, making it difficult to accurately assess specific aspects of biodiversity or to enact targeted conservation efforts. New advancements in artificial intelligence tools can be used to categorise individuals into their respective genetic clades and to highlight their distinguishing morphological characters that would otherwise be hidden from human observers. Here, we applied computer vision and explainable artificial intelligence techniques to four limpet species that display well-defined phylogeographic breaks along the Baja California and California coasts. A fine-tuned convolutional network, trained and evaluated over 100 resampling iterations, classified individuals into their genetic clades with median F1-scores of up to 0.96. F1-score performance was markedly higher for true clade groups than the controlled mixed-groups, confirming the presence of features specific to the clades. Saliency maps consistently emphasised structures such as the keyhole in Fissurella volcano and the ridge tips in Lottia conus as distinguishing features, and subsequent shape analyses confirmed significant divergence between clades. These results demonstrate the power of computer vision and explainable artificial intelligence to expose otherwise cryptic morphological diversity and provide a scalable, reproducible workflow that can broaden the biodiversity toolkit and refine eco-evolutionary research across taxa.

Data availability

Data for this project is available at:https://github.com/JackDanHollister/chapter_3-_genes_shells_and_AI_data.
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Jack D. Hollister.Ethics declarations

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The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics
The animal study was reviewed and approved by Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Body – ERGO II 63575. The permit to collect the field samples was provided by the Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, Pesca y Alimentación (SAGARPA, Permiso de Pesca de Fomento No. PPF/DGOPA-291/17 and PPF/DGOPA-010/19).

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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleHollister, J.D., Paz-García, D.A., Beas-Luna, R. et al. Genes, shells, and AI: using computer vision to detect cryptic morphological divergence between genetically distinct populations of limpets.
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A tropical forest meets the Atlantic Ocean at the Amazon Delta.Credit: NASA/AlamyAs the world gathered in Belém, Brazil, for the COP30 United Nations climate conference, Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva reignited an old but urgent debate: whether the multilateral process that has sustained climate diplomacy for three decades is still fit for purpose. His proposal for a global climate council — a smaller, more agile entity to lead negotiations and ensure that climate commitments are implemented — reflects mounting frustration with the slow pace of outcomes from the annual Conference of the Parties (COP).How to fight climate change without the US: a guide to global actionLula’s proposal deserves serious consideration. The COP process has become sprawling, performative and, at times, politically paralysed. Yet, as someone who helped to draft the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1991–92, I think that the answer is not to abandon this architecture, but to reform it.When we negotiated the UNFCCC, our goal was to create a durable legal scaffold that was flexible enough to evolve with scientific understanding and national capacities for climate action. In 1992, there was no precedent for a framework that addressed an issue that spanned every economy, ecosystem and generation of people. We had the science, but not yet the institutions or political will to act at scale. The framework-convention model allowed successive protocols, decisions and mechanisms to develop.That design has proven remarkably resilient. If someone had told me in 1992 that the world would still be negotiating climate action at COP30, I might have sighed. Yet, if they had told me that every nation would still be adhering to the same framework, guided by science and law, I would have been profoundly hopeful — as I am today.Climate diplomacy is slow because it is systemic. It forces nations to reconcile competing imperatives — development versus decarbonization, growth versus justice, and responsibility versus capability. The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities was born from these tensions: recognition that all countries share the problem but not the same level of blame or means to act.‘Almost utopian’: how protecting the environment is boosting the economy in BrazilProgress has been incremental but cumulative. The UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol and Paris agreement have created a coherent legal architecture for climate governance. The International Court of Justice delivered an advisory opinion in July, reaffirming that states have binding obligations to protect the climate, an indication of how far we’ve come.Criticism of the COP process is understandable. Yearly gatherings of tens of thousands of people can seem detached from the crisis outside the conference halls. But dismissing COPs ignores their ability to provide universality, legitimacy and accountability. President Lula’s call for a leaner climate council acknowledges this frustration while maintaining the inclusivity of the COP process.

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COP30 left many countries disappointed because no new road maps were created to help nations transition away from fossil fuels.Credit: Wagner Meier/GettyTen years after the Paris agreement was adopted, world leaders left the United Nations COP30 climate summit in Belém, Brazil, with an outcome that kept the process alive but does little to stave off the perils of global warming. Many scientists walked away dismayed and disappointed.Despite years of commitments and research that have laid the groundwork for action, the climate summit of achieved “essentially nothing”, says Johan Rockström, director of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in Germany.But, there were some signs of hope that multilateralism can tackle climate change. Over the course of two weeks, representatives from nearly 200 governments worked through hot days, long nights, a fire in the venue and numerous protests — including by Indigenous groups and others fighting for the protection of the Amazon and other tropical forests.Heatwaves linked to emissions of individual fossil-fuel and cement producersIn the end, governments agreed to a package of measures that pushes forward discussions on financial aid and a new ‘just transition’ mechanism designed to ensure a fair and equitable shift from fossil fuels to clean energy. A glaring omission was language calling for the creation of road maps to phase out fossil fuels and halt deforestation, but Brazil has announced it will push those ideas forward independently of the COP process.Here, Nature takes a look at the results from COP30 and what comes next.Sidestepping fossil fuelsThe summit failed to deliver major new pledges to curb greenhouse-gas emissions. Out of the 194 entities and countries that sent representatives to COP30, roughly 80 didn’t submit new commitments for 2035, as required under the accord, and the rest submitted weak pledges that are unlikely to alter global trajectory. As a result, scientists with the Climate Action Tracker consortium still project that the world is on track for upwards of 2.6 ° C of warming by 2100.“The new commitments don’t even move the needle,” says Niklas Höhne, a climate-policy researcher at the NewClimate Institute, an environmental think tank based in Berlin. “It’s really a sign that countries have limited appetite to support something more ambitious on climate.”Fossil fuels took centre stage briefly. More than 80 countries joined Brazil’s President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in the call for the creation of a road map to phase out fossil fuels, but the proposal ultimately foundered after reported opposition from oil-producing nations including Saudi Arabia and others.But the idea isn’t dead yet. Brazil promised to push forwards with it independently of the COP process, while the governments of Colombia and the Netherlands announced that they would host the first global conference on the just transition away from fossil fuels in April next year.Protesters carrying signs that read “our forests are not for sale” broke through security lines of the COP30 climate talks on 12 November.Credit: Pablo Porciuncula/AFP via GettyFinancing climate actionOne of the largest disputes at the summit was who should pay for climate action and help developing nations to prepare for and adapt to the unavoidable impacts of global warming. Progress was made: wealthier nations committed to tripling the amount of money they provide to help low-income countries tackle global warming — to US$300 billion annually by 2035. The agreement also carries forward a broader goal of boosting the total to $1.3 trillion annually from all sources, including private investments.But questions remain about how this will be financed. Previous deals on climate action have been plagued by delays in achieving financial goals as well as by disagreements about how much money should come from publicly funded grants, as opposed to loans and private investments.China pledges to cut emissions by 2035: what does that mean for the climate?The final deal at COP30 lays out a process to clarify these issues over the next two years. It’s a step towards ensuring that wealthy countries meet their responsibilities to provide climate finance to those in need, says Jodi-Ann Wang, who researches equity and climate finance at the London School of Economics and Political Science.

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