Ecology

Crop dataCrop area (in hectare, ha, for sown areas) and production (in kg) statistics on departmental level from 1900 until 1988 were collected from books of national agricultural statistics (‘Statistique agricole annuelle’ or ‘Annuaire de statistique agricole’) compiled by the French Ministry of Agriculture; detailed references are provided in the supplementary information. Numbers were manually digitized from photocopied versions of the original paper documents. Data from 1989 to 2018 were derived from digital statistics from the Agreste database (‘Statistique agricole annuelle’ compiled by the Service de la Statistique et de la Prospective (SSP), Secrétariat Général du Ministère de l’Agriculture, de l’Agroalimentaire et de la Forêt (MAAF), France); details are provided in the supplementary information. Yields were calculated from total production and sown area for each department to avoid apparently often incorrect yield values printed in the old statistics books. Yields are given in kilogram per hectare (kg/ha, for sown area) for dry mass with 10–16% moisture content, depending on the crop.Data are available for ten crops: soft wheat (spring and winter separately), durum wheat, maize, oats (spring and winter), rapeseed (spring and winter), barley (spring and winter), potatoes, sugarbeet, sunflower and wine. The split into spring and winter crops eventually results in 18 distinct crop-cultivar types. Time frames with available data and the correspondence between French and English names are provided in Table 1.Table 1 Data set description for yields on department level.Full size tableThe shapes of French departments have changed over time. We use the 96 mainland (Metropolitan France) departments in their current form and subsume historical values to modern departments as follows. Corsica was one single department until 1975 but then split into Corse-du-Sud and Haute-Corse. Data for Corsica until 1975 were split equally (area, production) or copied (yield) to both new departments. Seine and Seine-et-Oise were two departments until 1967, but then subdivided into seven new departments on 1 January 1968. To account for this, we consider the values of the seven new departments (Essonne, Hauts-de-Seine, Paris, Seine-Saint-Denis, Val-de-Marne, Val-d’Oise, Yvelines) only from 1968 on and unite the two old departments into one counter-factual (“Seine_SeineOise” in the data tables) until 1967.Multiple cropping per year within this set of crops is accounted for by separate area data, but is practically nonexistent in France6.Quality filtersSome yield values had to be considered as outliers, also after checking for digitizing errors. There were four criteria for defining an outlier. First, absolute yield values larger than a physiologically currently unreachable threshold were removed; threshold values were 15 t/ha for barley and durum wheat, 200 t/ha for sugarbeet and potatoes, 20 t/ha for maize, oats and wheat, 10 t/ha for rape and sunflower and 200 hl/ha for wine. These thresholds were chosen to eliminate visually obvious outliers likely due to mismatches between area and production records. The values are set slightly above current maximum attained yields, thus remaining permissive and removing only obvious errors in this first step. Additionally, all yield values for winter rape in 1944, spring rape in 1968 and spring barley in 1980 were removed due to wrongly reported values in the yearbooks. This first step removed in total 167 yield data points. Second, the top 1% of yield values across all departments per decade were removed. Third, values above or below the mean +/− four times the standard deviation of each crop-department time series (for yield, area and production separately) were removed. Fourth, and finally, a similar variance filter as in the third step was applied within each decade of a single time series, filtering values above or below decadal mean +/− two (for yield) or three (area, production) decadal standard deviations. The latter three filters removed, on average, 3.6% of the yield and 0.2% of the area or production data, respectively (Table 1). There were, as a median, 43 yield outliers per department (out of 1,260 data points on average), with a range of 4 (department Hauts de Seine) and 255 (Nord) and an interquartile range of 35–50 outliers. Outliers were masked as missing values to avoid introducing a bias from any correction. In the accompanying data sets we provide two version of the full data set, one without any corrections (“RAW”) and one where the filters described above have been applied (“FILTERED”).ValidationNationally aggregated area, production and yield data from our data set were validated with national data from 1961 to 2018 provided by the FAO (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E). Area and production data for crops with separate spring and winter data were summed on department level to test agreement with area and production data digitized for the ‘total’ crop. More

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The presents study indicates that Bracon predatorius generally oviposits during early stages of gall development (Fig. 1d) on galls induced by Aceria doctersi mostly on tender leaves (Fig 1a–c) and rarely on petioles and stems13. The number of B. predatorius larvae in parasitized galls ranged from 1–27 (n=93). Eighty-five percent of the examined galls (n=109) were parasitized by B. predatorius. Different development stages of larvae (Fig. 1f,g) and pupae (Fig. 1i) of B. predatorius were found together in some large galls (n=31) (Fig. 1i), which suggests multiple oviposition at different stages of gall development. Dissection of leaf galls two hours after oviposition by B. predatorius always revealed only a single egg (n=8). No live A. doctersi individuals were found close to the parasitoid wasp pupae (Fig. 1h). Aceria doctersi galls parasitised by B. predatorius have also been found in Kodakara (Thrissur district, Kerala) about 100 km away from the type locality in Kozhikode.The larval stages of B. predatorius feed on both juvenile and adults of A. doctersi (Fig 2d–f, Supplementary Video 1) which usually remain close to the erineal hairs on which they feed16; no egg predation occurs. Young larvae of B. predatorius wriggle through in between erineal hairs (Supplementary Video 1). They use their sickle-shaped mandibles (Fig 3b–e) to hunt mites (Supplementary Video 1). Continuous outward and inward movement of mandibles of B. predatorius larvae occurs along with the wriggling movement (Supplementary Video 1). The final instar larvae of B. predatorius are the most active and they feed voraciously at the rate of 5–7 A. doctersi individuals/min (n=8) (Supplementary Video 1).Figure 2Predatory behaviour of Bracon predatorius Ranjith & Quicke sp. nov. (a–c) Relationships between presence/absence and number of B. predatorius, gall size and numbers of mites (median, upper and lower quartiles, 1.5 × interquartile range and outliers): (a) galls without Bracon predatorius (n = 16) are significantly smaller than those with one or more Bracon predatorius (n = 93) (t = 3.7592, DF = 97.265, p-value = 0.000291), (b) galls without Bracon predatorius contain significantly more mites than those with (t = 6.308, DF = 15.877, p-value = 0.0001), (c) mite number as a function of number of Bracon predatorius larvae (only in parasitised galls) with gall volume as co-variate (n = 93, adjusted R2 = 0.4657,F = 21.13 on 3 and 89DF, p-value = 0.0001), gall volume and interaction were non-significant. (d–f) Sequential images of predatory behaviour of Bracon predatorius.Full size imageFigure 3Final instar larval cephalic structure of Bracon predatorius Ranjith & Quicke sp. nov. (a–d) Slide microphotographs of larval head capsule and mandible (a) macerated head capsule in anterior view, (b) head capsule, in dorsal view, (c) head capsule (in part), ventral view, (d) right mandible, in dorsal view, (e) anterior view of living final instar larva of B. predatorius consuming mite.Full size imageUnattacked galls were significantly smaller than those containing B. predatorius (means 217 and 595 respectively; p More