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Effects of water and nitrogen treatments on the yield of Isatis indigotica
As shown in Table 3, in the two-year experiment, both the water input and the nitrogen application rate had significant effects on the yield of Isatis indigotica.Table 3 Variance analysis of traits on the yield of Isatis indigotica.Full size tableAs shown in Fig. 4, with increasing water and nitrogen, the yield first increased and then decreased. The interaction between the water input and the nitrogen application rate reached a significant level (P  N1. At the levels of W1, W2, and W3, the yield of the N2 treatment increased by 5.3–7.9%, 6.5–6.9%, and 5.0–9.0% compared with those of the N3 treatment, respectively, and the yield of the N3 treatment increased by 1.4–1.9%, 1.5%-4.5%, and 1.7–3.5% compared with those of the N1 treatment, respectively. At the same nitrogen application level, the yield performance was W2  > W1  > W3. At the levels of N1, N2, and N3, the yield of the W2 treatment increased by 6.9–12.4%, 8.3–11.3%, and 6.8–13.5% compared with those of the W3 treatment, respectively, and the yield of the W3 treatment decreased by 1.6–3.9%, 1.5–1.6%, and 1.3–2.4% compared with those of the W1 treatment, respectively.Effects of the water and nitrogen treatments on the quality of Isatis indigotica
As shown in Table 4, in the two-year experiment, the water input and nitrogen application rate had significant impacts on the contents of indigo, indirubin, (R,S)-epigoitrin and polysaccharide in Isatis indigotica.Table 4 Variance analysis of traits the quality of Isatis indigotica.Full size tableAs shown in Fig. 5, The impacts decreased with increasing irrigation amount and nitrogen application rate. Compared with those in the W3N3 treatment, the contents of indigo, indirubin, (R,S)-epigoitrin and polysaccharide in the W2N2 treatment increased by 4.5–5.9%, 2.7–3.1%, 5.2–6.0% and 1.8–2.1%, respectively. At the same irrigation level, the contents of indigo, indirubin, (R,S)-epigoitrin and polysaccharides all decreased in the order N1  > N2  > N3. At the W2 level, the contents of indigo, indirubin, (R,S)-epigoitrin and polysaccharide in the N1 treatment increased by 0.5–1.7%, 0.8–0.9%, 0.8–1.1% and 0.1–0.4%, respectively, compared with those in the N2 treatment. Compared with those in the N3 treatment, the contents of indigo, indirubin, (R,S)-epigoitrin and polysaccharide in the N2 treatment increased by 1.9–2.1%, 1.5–2.2%, 2.1–2.2% and 0.6–1.1%, respectively.Figure 5The effects of the different treatments on the quality index of Isatis indigotica. The values shown are the mean ± SD, n = 3. Asterisks indicate a significant difference at the P ≤ 0.05 level.Full size imageAt the same nitrogen level, the contents of indigo, indirubin, (R,S)-epigoitrin and polysaccharides all decreased in the order W1  > W2  > W3. At the N2 level, the contents of indigo, indirubin, (R,S)-epigoitrin and polysaccharides in the W1 treatment increased by 1.5–2.0%, 1.8–2.1%, 3.0–3.1% and 0.4–0.9% compared with those in the W2 treatment, respectively. Compared with those in the W3 treatment, the contents of indigo, indirubin, (R,S)-epigoitrin and polysaccharides of the W2 treatment increased by 2.3–3.5%, 1.8–2.3%, 2.0–4.0% and 1.0–1.4%, respectively.Effects of the water and nitrogen treatments on the WUE of Isatis indigotica
As shown in Table 5, in the two-year experiment, the water input and nitrogen application rate had significant impacts on the WUE of Isatis indigotica (P  N3  > N1. At the W1, W2, and W3 levels, the WUE of the N2 treatment increased by 6.5–8.6%, 7.8–8.1%, and 7.4–10.4% compared with that of the N3 treatment, respectively, and the WUE of the N3 treatment increased by 2.9–3.1%, 3.9–6.0%, and 4.5–5.3% compared with that of the N1 treatment, respectively. Under the same nitrogen application rate level, the WUE performance was W1  > W2  > W3. At the N1, N2, and N3 levels, the WUE of the W1 treatment increased by 5.0–11.7%, 2.8–9.2%, and 2.0–10.9% compared with that of the W2 treatment, respectively, and the WUE of the W2 treatment increased by 24.2–29.5%, 24.3 -27.2%, and 23.5–30.3% compared with that of the W3 treatment, respectively.Effects of water and nitrogen treatments on NUE of Isatis indigotica
As shown in Table 6, in the two-year experiment, the water input and nitrogen application rate had significant impacts on the nitrogen fertilizer use efficiency (NUE) of Isatis indigotica (P  N2  > N3. At the levels of W1, W2, and W3, the NUE of the N1 treatment increased by 9.9–11.8%, 9.6–13.0%, and 6.3–11.6% compared with that of the N2 treatment, respectively, and the NUE of the N2 treatment increased by 31.0–37.6%, 28.8–29.2%, and 28.3–28.6% compared with that of the N3 treatment, respectively. At the same nitrogen application level, the NUE performance was W2  > W3  > W1. At the N1, N2, and N3 levels, the NUE of the W2 treatment increased by 5.7–6.1%, 2.5–4.8%, and 2.3–4.1% compared with that of the W3 treatment, respectively, and the NUE of the W3 treatment decreased by 3.4–8.0%, 6.9–8.2%, and 10.5–14.5% compared with that of the W1 treatment, respectively.Ethical guidelineThe authors confirm that relevant ethical guidelines were followed for plant usage.Land permit statementThe experimental land belongs to the Yimin Irrigation Experimental Station, in Minle County, Gansu Province, China. More

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Trends in cephalopods tradeSince 2000, trade in fresh octopus has been constantly dominated by the flow from China to Korea, followed by Vietnam to Japan, Portugal to Spain and Spain to Italy. However, there has been a marked decrease in the traded volume and monetary value over time, with a 50% reduction in the top 5 traders (Tables S3–S5).Over the last 20 years, fresh octopus exports have been strongly dominated by China, followed by Spain, Vietnam, Portugal, and France, and recently by Morocco and Thailand (Table S3). While Vietnam was the most important exporter in the first period (2000–2005), it was not within the top 5 traders in the last 5 years. Imports have been dominated by Korea, Italy, and Portugal, with no notable changes in the whole period (Table S4). Regarding trade of processed octopus, the largest transactions have been performed from Morocco to Spain, Morocco to Japan, Mauritania to Japan (and more recently also to Spain) and China to Korea (Table S5). Since 2000, exports of processed products have been dominated by Morocco, Mauritania, China, Spain, and Vietnam (Table S3), while imports have been led by Japan, Spain, Italy, Korea, and the United States (Table S4).Trade in volume of fresh cuttlefish and squid includes fewer clear relationships over time, such as transactions from Malaysia to Singapore (2000–2004 and 2005–2009); from Myanmar to Thailand (2005–2009 and 2015–2019); and from Yemen to Vietnam (2010–2015) (Tables S6-S8). For the first 5 years, exports of fresh commodities were dominated by Vietnam. However, since 2005, India, Spain and France have increased their exports in both monetary value and volume, displacing Vietnam from the top rank (Table S6). The main importing traders were Spain and Italy. Although China was important in the first decade, it was replaced by Vietnam in the last decade (Table S7). The trade of elaborated cuttlefish and squid products was dominated by monetary value flow from Thailand to Japan and from Malvinas/Falkland Islands to Spain in the first decade, while in the last decade the flow from China to other traders (Japan, the USA, and Thailand) gained relevance. However, the volume follows a different pattern, with flow from the Malvinas/Falkland Islands to Spain and from Korea to China in the first decade, while in the last decade, flows from Peru to China and from China to Thailand were important (Table S8). A disparity exists between the top five traders in terms of flow of monetary value and volume in the first 15 years; but in the last 5 years the top positions are constantly represented by, China, Peru, India, and Spain. Italy, Japan, China, and the USA are important importers in terms of monetary value and volume, although in the last decade Thailand has increased its importance, replacing the USA in the top 5 in the last 5 years (Table S7).The CGTN involved 220 traders (countries or territories) from around the world with exports greater than or equal to 500 kg between 2000 and 2019 (Fig. 3). The remaining 32 traders either did not report exports or their exports were below 500 kg. The most important cluster of traders was composed by 8 countries that dominate the cephalopod global markets in Asia (China, India, Republic of Korea, Thailand, Vietnam), Europe (the Netherlands, Spain) and the USA. The second and third most relevant clusters were composed of 8 and 12 traders, respectively. These two clusters involve 9 developed countries (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom and Portugal) and 11 developing countries (Morocco, Malaysia, UAE, Senegal, South Africa, Peru, Indonesia, Philippines, Argentina, Chile and New Zealand). Some of these traders have the most productive cephalopod fisheries in the world (e.g., Patagonian shortfin squid in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean and Patagonian squid in the Southeastern Pacific Ocean).Figure 3The Cephalopod Global Trade Network. The top 220 traders of the CGTN as nodes (circles) and their trade links as lines. The colour and the size of the nodes represent, respectively, the cluster membership and relative importance of the trader in the CGTN, estimated from the number of trade links with other traders (i.e., degree). The colour of the edges represents the origin, destination and the proportion of trade links for all years between each pair of traders. The clusters were made using Ward’s method. The figure was created with R12 (https://cran.r-project.org) packages: “ggraph” v.2.0.030 (https://ggraph.data-imaginist.com) and “ggtree” v3.0.232 (https://guangchuangyu.github.io/ggtree-book/chapter-ggtree.html).Full size imageOctopus trade networkLive, fresh, or chilled octopusThe normalised strength (Fig. 4) revealed the importance of China and Republic of Korea in the trade of fresh octopus in monetary value, with high importance of flows between these two traders over time (Supplementary Fig. S1). Other relevant traders over time were Spain, Portugal and Italy, in Europe; and Vietnam and Japan, in Asia from 2000 to 2004 (Supplementary Fig. S1). The network based in volume showed similar results.Figure 4Global trade network for octopus live, fresh or chilled between 1 January 2000, and 31 December 2019 in monetary value (USD). The numbers correspond to the normalised strength for the monetary value. Each node represents a trader, and each edge represents the export–import relationship between two traders. The size and colour of the node represent the relative importance of the trader in the network in terms of its strength. The width and colour of the edge represent the relative importance of the relationship between two traders in terms of their edge strength. The figure was created with R12 (https://cran.r-project.org) packages: “ggplot2” v.3.2.113 (https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org), “ggmap” v.3.0.029 (https://github.com/dkahle/ggmap) and “ggraph” v.2.0.030 (https://ggraph.data-imaginist.com).Full size imageThe Betweenness identified important actors facilitating flow through the network. For fresh octopus, the most relevant traders in the last two decades were Spain, France, and Italy, followed by Thailand, Portugal and the USA. Again, no major differences exist between the monetary value and volume networks. However, the ranking of traders changed over time, with Italy replacing Spain in the first place during the period 2005–2009, and then Spain consolidating again in the first place in the following periods. Also, in the last 20 years there were many changes in Asia, with Vietnam losing and Korea gaining prominence over time (Supplementary Fig. S2).In a global trade network, there are countries that are essential to the network structure because they are connected to other countries critical to the network and those critical countries, in turn, have no other significant connections. PageRank is a centrality measure that identifies these important countries, resulting from an iterative algorithm that assigns higher values to countries with a greater number of import connections with other countries that move large quantities of goods or money33. In the last 20 years, Italy, Germany France and Spain have occupied those central positions in the global trade network of live, fresh or chilled octopus. Their dominance has not changed over the four 5-year periods analysed (Fig. 5).Figure 5Global trade network for octopus live, fresh or chilled between 1 January 2000, and 31 December 2019 in monetary value (USD). The numbers correspond to the normalised PageRank for the monetary value. Each node represents a trader. The size and colour of the node represent the relative importance of the trader in the network in terms of its PageRank. The figure was created with R12 (https://cran.r-project.org) packages: “ggplot2” v.3.2.113 (https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org), “ggmap” v.3.0.029 (https://github.com/dkahle/ggmap) and “ggraph” v.2.0.030 (https://ggraph.data-imaginist.com).Full size imageElaborated octopusThe normalised strength revealed a diversified trade network for elaborated octopus products. This network has remained relatively stable over the last 20 years, with some exceptions. In the 2000s, there was an intense flow of exports from North Africa (i.e., Morocco and Mauritania) to Japan, although the most important flow was from Morocco to Spain. In the 2010s, Mauritania changed its preferential partner and exported large quantities of elaborated octopus to Spain, with the latter gaining dominance. In this last decade, flows from China and Vietnam to the Republic of Korea also became important. Other relevant actors were distributed globally (e.g., Italy, Portugal, Senegal, the USA). However, the most important routes showed a common pattern: the origin was in developing countries or territories (that emerged as producers) while developed countries showed a high and stable consumer demand (Supplementary Fig. S3). The network based on volume was highly similar to the monetary value network. However, Italy, China, Korea, Vietnam, and the USA reduced their importance compared to the top-ranked traders (i.e., Spain, Japan, and Morocco). The most important routes of the volume network were from China to Korea; Morocco to Spain; Morocco and Mauritania to Japan and Vietnam to Korea.The Betweenness measure highlighted the role of Spain as a facilitating actor in the trade network of elaborated octopus, followed by Italy, China, and the USA. These countries have maintained their importance as structurers of the world trade network in elaborated octopus over the past 20 years. Similarly, the routes from Italy to Spain, and from Spain to China and the USA emerged as relevant in the network structure, with a special mention to the route between Japan and China in the last 5-year period (Supplementary Fig. S4). There are no major differences between the most central traders in this network and the volume-based one.PageRank revealed the importance of Spain and Italy as leading traders in the elaborated octopus market. These two countries concentrated a large number of import relationships, which also concentrated a large monetary and volume flow. This importance has been maintained over time. Other reference actors were Greece, Japan, the USA and Portugal, in the first decade; and the USA, Portugal, Greece and Korea in the second decade. Note how in the second decade, Greece and Japan lost relevance, while Northern European countries and the Republic of Korea gained relevance (Supplementary Fig. S5).Squid and cuttlefish trade networkLive, fresh, or chilled squid and cuttlefishThe normalised strength revealed the importance of Spain, France, Italy, and India in the trade network of fresh squid and cuttlefish products, especially the route between east Asia and Spain (Fig. 6). The volume-based network is highly similar to the monetary value network. Over the four 5-year periods analysed, Vietnam and Japan have gradually lost relative importance in the network (Supplementary Fig. S6).Figure 6Global trade network for squid and cuttlefish live, fresh or chilled between 1 January 2000, and 31 December 2019 in monetary value (USD). The numbers correspond to the normalised strength for the monetary value. Each node represents a trader, and each edge represents the export–import relationship between two traders. The size and colour of the node represent the relative importance of the trader in the network in terms of its strength. The width and colour of the edge represent the relative importance of the relationship between two traders in terms of their edge strength. The figure was created with R12 (https://cran.r-project.org) packages: “ggplot2” v.3.2.113 (https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org), “ggmap” v.3.0.029 (https://github.com/dkahle/ggmap) and “ggraph” v.2.0.030 (https://ggraph.data-imaginist.com).Full size imageFor fresh squid and cuttlefish, Betweenness identified Spain as the most important structurer of the network, in both monetary value and volume, over the time. Europe emerged as a major region structuring the global trade network. While in Asia, the exchange of countries with higher betweenness over time evidences the strong struggle for control of trade in the region and the more fragile sub-networks. In the monetary network, in the 2000s the bridge between the United Kingdom and Korea stood out, while in the 2010s the Europe-Asia bridge was established between Spain and India. In the volume-based network, it is noteworthy that in the 2010s there were many critical routes for the stability of the network, even in the Europe–Asia connection. Note, for example how the link between Netherlands and Myanmar stand out (Supplementary Fig. S7).PageRank revealed the importance of Italy, Spain, Germany and France as leading traders in the fresh squid and cuttlefish market. In the last 20 years, Europe concentrated the largest number of import relationships, which also concentrated a large monetary and volume flow. Europe leadership has been maintained over time (Fig. 7).Figure 7Global trade network for squid and cuttlefish live, fresh or chilled between 1 January 2000, and 31 December 2019 in monetary value (USD). The numbers correspond to the normalised PageRank for the monetary value. Each node represents a trader. The size and colour of the node represent the relative importance of the trader in the network in terms of its PageRank. The figure was created with R12 (https://cran.r-project.org) packages: “ggplot2” v.3.2.113 (https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org), “ggmap” v.3.0.029 (https://github.com/dkahle/ggmap) and “ggraph” v.2.0.030 (https://ggraph.data-imaginist.com).Full size imageElaborated squid and cuttlefishThe trade networks based on monetary value and volume for elaborated squid and cuttlefish emerge as global and complex, where several far distant traders have relevant roles in the import/export network (Supplementary Fig. S8). Although the most important nodes in the volume-based network reflected important nodes in the monetary value network, the strengths of the links, i.e., the flow of value and volume, did not. For example, in the volume-based network, Peru exported the largest quantities of squid and cuttlefish to China (Supplementary Fig. S8b,d), but the flow of money for these transactions was less important (Supplementary Fig. S8a,c).The betweenness centrality metric (based both on monetary value and volume) showed the importance of China, the USA, and Spain (followed by Italy, Korea, and Thailand) as facilitators in the elaborated goods trade network (Supplementary Fig. S9). While the main important bridges in volume transactions were between Italy and Spain, Spain and China, and China and the USA (Supplementary Fig. S9b,d), the main monetary bridges were from the USA to China, followed by the routes from Spain to the USA and from Italy to Spain (Supplementary Fig. S9a,c). The key traders structuring the network were the same, but they follow different directions.Closeness centrality highlighted the main actors in a regional context (Fig. 8). In both the monetary value and volume-based networks, China, North and South Korea, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam form a strong trade network for squid and cuttlefish elaborated in Asia. Key players include South America (Peru, Argentina, Chile, the Malvinas/Falkland Islands); the USA; the Mediterranean (Morocco, Spain); Africa (South Africa, Mauritania); and the West Pacific region (New Zealand, Japan). Note how the highest values of closeness were slightly different in the money-based network (Fig. 8a) and in the volume-based network (Fig. 8b), mainly for those countries that are historically large producers of elaborated squid and cuttlefish (e.g., Peru and Argentina).Figure 8Global trade network for squid and cuttlefish elaborated between 1 January 2000, and 31 December 2019 in monetary value (USD) above, and volume (kg) below. The numbers correspond to the normalised closeness for the monetary value (USD) and volume (kg) traded, respectively. Each node represents a trader. The size and colour of the node represent the relative importance of the trader in the network in terms of its closeness. The figure was created with R12 (https://cran.r-project.org) packages: “ggplot2” v.3.2.113 (https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org), “ggmap” v.3.0.029 (https://github.com/dkahle/ggmap) and “ggraph” v.2.0.030 (https://ggraph.data-imaginist.com).Full size imagePageRank revealed the importance of Greece, Spain, China, USA and Japan as leading traders in the global elaborated squid and cuttlefish market for the first 10-years (Supplementary Fig. S10a). Globally, in the last decade, China, the USA and Japan have declined in importance, while Europe has consolidated its importance. However, Spain’s relevance has declined over the last decade while Germany’s has increased (Supplementary Fig. S10b). More

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OBITUARY
10 January 2022

Edward O. Wilson (1929–2021)

Naturalist, conservationist and synthesizer who founded sociobiology.

Bert Hölldobler

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Bert Hölldobler

Bert Hölldobler holds the Robert A. Johnson Chair in Social Insect Research and is Regent’s Professor in the School of Life Sciences at Arizona State University, Tempe. He began working with Wilson in 1970.

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Harvard University Professor E.O. Wilson in his office at Harvard University in Cambridge, MA. USACredit: Rick Friedman/Corbis via Getty

Edward (Ed) Wilson began by exploring the systematics, geographical distribution, social organization and evolution of ants. He became one of the great scholarly synthesizers, winning two Pulitzer prizes. A superb naturalist who enjoyed challenging dogma, he fought for conservation, brought ideas of biodiversity into the mainstream and set ecology on a rigorous conceptual footing. He has died aged 92.Wilson’s book Sociobiology, published in 1975, was the first to address the evolution and organization of societies in organisms ranging from colonial bacteria to primates, including humans. The final chapter, on human social interaction, ignited controversy. Wilson argued that human behaviour, although adaptable to environmental conditions, is rooted in a genetic ‘blueprint’. Opponents claimed that nothing in human behaviour is grounded in genetics, except sleeping, eating and defecation. In a letter to The New York Review of Books, a group of academics including evolutionary biologists Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin associated Wilson’s view with racism and genocide. Wilson responded with elegance and humour; in my view, most scholars now agree that he won this argument.
Conservation: Glass half full
Wilson was born in 1929 in Birmingham, Alabama, and grew up, as he admitted in his 2006 autobiography, Naturalist, “mostly insulated from its social problems”. After studying biology at the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, he did graduate studies at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He felt its Museum of Comparative Zoology, with the world’s largest ant collection, was his “destiny”.In 1955, he obtained his PhD on the systematics of the ant genus Lasius, which includes the widespread black garden ant. Systematic biology and the study of biodiversity remained his mission, but he made significant contributions to other fields, such as animal behaviour and chemical ecology. His early work on chemical communication in animals, particularly social insects, inspired a generation of scientists to explore a new area in behavioural physiology.In 1954, Wilson set out for Melanesia, including New Guinea, to study ant taxonomy and biogeography. On the basis of his data, he elaborated the critique that he and his Harvard colleague William Brown had previously developed on the idea of subspecies. They argued that the distinctions between species should be more clearly defined, allowing for variability within species. Equally influential was their thinking on character displacement — when similar species in the same area diverge genetically to avoid competing for resources.Through his fieldwork in Melanesia and later in the Caribbean, Wilson drafted a principle of biogeography that he called the taxon cycle. Species evolve back and forth between being able to live in marginal habitats, and thus disperse widely, and restricting their distribution to species-rich habitats in island interiors. He tested this and other original hypotheses in the Florida Keys in the 1960s, in collaboration with his former student Daniel Simberloff. With ecologist Robert MacArthur, he proposed that species maintain their populations through trade-offs between number of offspring and quality of parental care (the concept of r/K selection). Their 1967 book The Theory of Island Biogeography had far-reaching effects on studies of evolution and conservation.
A revolution in evolution
From early in his career, Wilson wondered about ways to understand the evolution of social organization, from primates to social insects (such as honeybees and ants). “A congenital synthesizer,” he wrote in his autobiography, “I held on to the dream of a unifying theory.” He developed a theory of adaptive demography — that certain kinds of social structure might increase reproductive fitness — and the evolution of division of labour between castes, such as insect queens and worker groups. First brought together in The Insect Societies (1971), these concepts were elaborated in Caste and Ecology in the Social Insects, with mathematical biologist George Oster, in 1978.Sociobiology was a much more far-reaching synthesis on the evolution of social systems. The furore that ensued stimulated Wilson to write an even more provocative book, On Human Nature (1978). This garnered his first Pulitzer. His highly original book Biophilia (1984) was the first to use the term to mean human empathy for the natural world. He argued that pleasure in being surrounded by diverse living organisms is a biological adaptation. These books prepared the ground for Consilience (1998), which one reviewer called a biologist’s dream of the unity of knowledge. It proposed the kind of intellectual annexation that occurs when one field can be explained in terms of a more fundamental discipline, and received a mixed response.To his and my utmost surprise, in 1990, the huge monograph The Ants, on which we worked for years, won another Pulitzer. Wilson continued to publish on human evolution and humanity’s relationship with the planet into his 90s. Half-Earth (2016) is a passionate plea to leave half of our world to nature.Ed was not a team builder. He preferred to work alone, although in a few cases he found colleagues who complemented his abilities. He thrived on controversy. In the past two decades, he had rejected the theory of inclusive fitness — the idea that the reproductive success of an individual increases when it helps to raise the offspring of its close relatives — that he once propagated. This led to heated debates, and I opposed some of his views. When we reached a compromise and submitted the manuscript of our book The Superorganism (2009), Ed’s concluding remark was: “Bert, there is one thing we agree on 100%. That is: my co-author is wrong.” One could disagree with Ed over scientific issues and remain good friends.

Nature 601 (2022)
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00078-7

Competing Interests
The author declares no competing interests.

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