Ecology

Chazdon, R. L. et al. Carbon sequestration potential of second-growth forest regeneration in the Latin American tropics. Sci. Adv. 2, e1501639 (2016).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
IKI. The Bonn Challenge. https://www.bonnchallenge.org/ (2022).UNCCD. Land Degradation Neutrality. https://www.unccd.int/land-and-life/land-degradation-neutrality/overview (2022).Bastin, J.-F. et al. The global tree restoration potential. Science 365, 76–79 (2019).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Brancalion, P. H. S. et al. Global restoration opportunities in tropical rainforest landscapes. Sci. Adv. 5, eaav3223 (2019).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Strassburg, B. B. N. et al. Global priority areas for ecosystem restoration. Nature 586, 724–729 (2020).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Erbaugh, J. T. et al. Global forest restoration and the importance of prioritizing local communities. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 4, 1472–1476 (2020).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Fleischman, F. et al. Restoration prioritization must be informed by marginalized people. Nature 607, E5–E6 (2022).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Chaturvedi, R. et al. Restoration Opportunities Atlas of India. www.india.restorationatlas.org/methodology (2022).McLain, R., Lawry, S., Guariguata, M. R. & Reed, J. Toward a tenure-responsive approach to forest landscape restoration: a proposed tenure diagnostic for assessing restoration opportunities. Land Use Policy 104, 103748 (2021).Article 

Google Scholar 
Binod, B., Bhattarcharjee, A. & Ishwar, N. M. Bonn Challenge and India: Progress on Restoration Efforts Across States and Landscapes (IUCN, 2018).Government of India. Aspirational Districts Phase 1 (vikaspedia, 2018).Government of India. Census of India. https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB.html (2011).DeFries, R. et al. Land management can contribute to net zero. Science 376, 1163–1165 (2022).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Borah, B., Bhattacharya, A. & Ishwar, N. M. Bonn Challenge and India. Progress On Restoration Efforts Across States and Landscapes. https://www.bonnchallenge.org/pledges/india (2018).Gopalakrishna, T. et al. Existing land uses constrain climate change mitigation potential of forest restoration in India. Conserv. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12867 (2022).Dhyani, S. et al. Agroforestry to achieve global climate adaptation and mitigation targets: are South Asian countries sufficiently prepared? Forests 12, 303 (2021).Article 

Google Scholar 
Nerlekar, A. N. et al. Removal or utilization? Testing alternative approaches to the management of an invasive woody legume in an arid Indian grassland. Restor. Ecol. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13477 (2022).Coleman, E. A. et al. Limited effects of tree planting on forest canopy cover and rural livelihoods in Northern India. Nat Sustain 4, 997–1004 (2021).Article 

Google Scholar 
Ramprasad, V., Joglekar, A. & Fleischman, F. Plantations and pastoralists: afforestation activities make pastoralists in the Indian Himalaya vulnerable. Ecol. Soci. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-11810-250401 (2020).DeFries, R. et al. Improved household living standards can restore dry tropical forests. Biotropica https://doi.org/10.1111/btp.12978 (2021).Lele, S., Khare, A. & Mokashi, S. Estimating and Mapping CFR Potential (ATREE, 2020).Agarwala, M. et al. Impact of biogas interventions on forest biomass and regeneration in southern India. Global Ecol. Conservation 11, 213–223 (2017).Article 

Google Scholar 
Menon, A. & Schmidt-Vogt, D. Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on farmers and their responses: a study of three farming systems in Kerala. South India. Land 11, 144 (2022).
Google Scholar 
Fremout, T. et al. Diversity for Restoration (D4R): Guiding the selection of tree species and seed sources for climate‐resilient restoration of tropical forest landscapes. J. Appl. Ecol. 59, 664–679 (2022).Article 

Google Scholar 
Hughes, K. A. et al. Can restoration of the commons reduce rural vulnerability? A Quasi-experimental comparison of COVID-19 livelihood-based coping strategies among rural households in three Indian States. Int. J. Common. 16, 189 (2022).Article 

Google Scholar 
Madhusudan, M. D. & Vanak, A. Mapping the Distribution and Extent of India’s Semi-arid Open Natural Ecosystems. https://doi.org/10.1002/essoar.10507612.1 (2021).Vanak, A. T., Hiremath, A. J., Ganesh, T. & Rai, N. D. Filling in the (Forest) Blanks: the Past, Present and Future of India’s Savanna Grasslands (ATREE, 2017).Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative. Global Multidimensional Poverty Index 2018. The Most Detailed Picture to Date of the World’s Poorest People. https://ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/G-MPI_2018_2ed_web.pdf (2018).Hijmans, R. J. et al. raster: Geographic Data Analysis and Modeling. https://rspatial.org/raster (2023).Bivand, R. et al. rgdal: Bindings for the ‘Geospatial’ Data Abstraction Library. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/rgdal/index.html (2023).QGIS Development Team. QGIS Geographic Information System (Open Source Geospatial Foundation Project, 2022). More

OverviewThis study establishes a framework for mapping carbon stocks at the level of individual trees at a sub-continental scale in semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa north of the Equator. We used satellite imagery from the early dry season (Extended Data Fig. 1). The deep learning method developed by a previous study1 allowed us to map billions of discrete tree crowns at the 50-cm scale from West Africa to the Red Sea. Then we used allometry to convert tree crown area into tree wood, foliage and root carbon for the 0–1,000 mm year−1 precipitation zone in which our allometry was collected (Extended Data Fig. 2). We introduce a viewer that enables the billions of trees to be viewed at different scales, with information on location, metadata of the Maxar satellite image used, tree crown area and the estimated wood, foliage and root carbon content based on our allometry (Fig. 4). We also make available our output data for the 1,000 mm year−1 precipitation zone southward to 9.5° N latitude with information on location, precipitation, metadata of the Maxar satellite image used, tree crown area, tree wood carbon, tree root carbon and tree leaf carbon.Satellite imageryWe used 326,523 Maxar multispectral images from the QuickBird-2, GeoEye-1, WorldView-2 and WorldView-3 satellites collected from 2002 to 2020 from November to March from 9.5° N to 24° N latitude within Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) zones 28–37 for Africa (Extended Data Table 1a). These images were obtained by NASA through the NextView License from the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. Data were assembled over several years with a focus on later years to achieve a relatively recent and complete wall-to-wall coverage.When using satellite data from different satellites over several years, with varying sun–target–satellite angles, with varying radiometric calibration of satellite spectral bands and different atmospheric compositions through which the surface is imaged, there are two possibilities for using hundreds of thousands of satellite images together quantitatively. One approach, used extensively in NASA’s, NOAA’s and the European Space Agency’s Earth-viewing satellite programmes, is to quantitatively inter-calibrate radiometrically the satellite channels through time; correct these data for time-dependent atmospheric effects such as aerosols, clouds, haze, smoke, dust and other atmospheric constituent effects and then normalize the viewing perspective to the same sun–target–satellite angle38. Another approach is to use the satellite data as collected; assemble training data of trees viewed from different satellites under different sun–target–satellite angles, different times, different atmospheric conditions and use machine learning with high-performance computing to perform the tree mapping at the 50-cm scale. The key to successful machine learning is to account for all the sources of variation within the domain of study in the training data to ensure accurate identification of trees under all circumstances. We included trees viewed substantially off-nadir, trees collected under different aerosol optical thicknesses, trees collected under cirrus cloud conditions, trees viewed in the forward and backward scan directions, trees on sandy soils, trees on clay soils, trees on burn scars, trees in laterite areas and trees in riverine settings. Our training data were collected by one team member and are a carefully selected manual delineation of 89,899 individual trees under a range of atmospheric conditions, viewing perspectives and ecological settings.All multispectral and panchromatic bands associated with our Maxar images were orthorectified to a common mapping basis. We next pan-sharpened all multispectral bands to the 0.5-m scale with the associated panchromatic band. The absolute locational uncertainty of pixels at the 0.5-m scale from orbit is approximately ±11 m, considering the root-mean-square location errors among the QuickBird-2, GeoEye-1, WorldView-2 and WorldView-3 satellites (Extended Data Table 1). We formed the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)39 from every image in the traditional way from the pan-sharpened red and near-infrared bands. We also associated the panchromatic band with the NDVI band and ensured that the panchromatic and NDVI bands were highly co-registered. The NDVI was used to distinguish tree crowns from non-vegetated background because the images were taken from a period when only woody plants were photosynthetically active in this area36. Our training data were labelled on images from the early dry season when only trees have green leaves. Because most semi-arid savannah trees continue to photosynthesize in the early dry season after herbaceous vegetation senesces, green leaf tree crowns are easily mapped because of their higher NDVI values than their senescent herbaceous vegetation surroundings. We substantiate this by analysis of 308 individual trees using NDVI time series with 4-m PlanetScope imagery that emphasized the importance of satellite data from the November, December and January early dry-season months (Extended Data Fig. 1).We next formed our data into mosaics by applying a set of decision rules, resulting in a collection of 16 × 16-km tiles within each UTM zone from 9.5° N to 24° N latitude for Africa. The initial round of scoring considered percentage cloud cover, sun elevation angle and sensor off-nadir angle: preference was given to imagery that had lower cloud cover, then higher sun elevation angle and finally view angles closest to nadir. In the second round of scoring, selections were assigned priority to favour early dry-season months and off-nadir view angles: preference was given to imagery from November, December and January with off-nadir angle less than ±15°; second to imagery from November to January with off-nadir angle between ±15° and ±30°; third to imagery from February or March with off-nadir angle less than ±15°; and finally to imagery from February or March with off-nadir angle between ±15° and ±30°. Image mosaics were necessary to eliminate multiple counting of trees. We formed mosaics using 94,502 images for tree segmentation, with 94% of these being from November, December and January. Ninety percent of our selected mosaic imagery was within ±15° of nadir, 87% were acquired between 2010 and 2020 and 94% were from the early dry season (Extended Data Fig. 7). A summary of month, year, solar elevation and off-nadir angle by UTM zone can be found in Supplemental Information Fig. 1.Possible obscuration of the surface by clouds totalled 4.1% of our input mosaic data area and aerosol optical depth >0.6 at 470-nm (ref. 40) areas totalled 3.4% of our input data. However, we mapped 691,477,772 trees in our possible cloud-cover-affected and aerosol-affected areas, indicating that cloud and aerosol effects were lower than these numbers. In addition, 0.9% of our input data did not process. We include a data layer in our viewer for these three conditions.Mapping tree crowns with deep learningWe used convolutional neural network models developed by a previous study1. The models were trained with manually delineated and annotated 89,899 individual trees along a north–south gradient from 0 to 1,000 mm year−1 rainfall1. Only features that showed a distinct crown area and associated shadow were included, which excluded small bushes, grass tussocks, rocks and other features that might have green leaves or cast a shadow from our classification. All training data and model training was done in UTM zones 28 and 29. Because tree floristic diversity in the 0–1,000 mm year−1 zone of our study is highly similar from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea across Africa41,42,43, we added no further training data as our study moved further eastward. We used state-of-the-art deep learning to segment trees crowns at the 50-cm scale1. We used two different models based on a U-Net architecture, one for lower-rainfall desert regions with 150 mm year−1. Details about the network architecture, training process and hyperparameter choices can be found in ref. 1. Previous evaluation showed that early dry-season images performed better than late dry-season images, which was a limitation of our previous study. We reduced this error by using early dry-season images with only 6% of our area being covered by images from February and March. The models were also designed to separate clumped trees by highlighting spaces between different crowns during the learning process, similar to a strategy for separating touching cells in microscopic imagery22.AllometryVery-high-resolution satellite images and deep learning have achieved mapping of individual trees over large areas1. Each tree is georeferenced in the satellite data and defined by crown area. The challenge was to develop allometric equations for foliage, wood and root dry masses or carbon based on crown area regardless of species. This was met by reanalysing existing Sahelian and Sudanian woody plant data from destructive sampling. Overall, the seasonal maximum foliage, wood and root dry masses were measured on 900, 698 and 26 trees or shrubs from 27, 26 and 5 species, respectively, for which crown area was also measured. Several allometric regression models tested for foliage, wood or root masses are power functions and independent of species. All the regression outputs were inter-compared for fit indicators, by systematic estimates of prediction uncertainty and by root-to-wood ratios and foliage-to-wood ratios over the range of crown areas. This resulted in a set of ordinary least squares log–log equations with crown area as the independent variable. The Sahelian and Sudanian allometry equations were also compared with published allometry equations for tropical trees, primarily from more humid tropics, which are generally based on stem diameter, tree height and wood density. Our allometric predictions are within the range of other allometry predictions, reinforcing the confidence in their use beyond the Sahelian and Sudanian domains into sub-humid savannahs for discrete trees19.On the basis of ref. 19, we predicted the wood (w), foliage (f) and root (r) dry mass as functions of the crown area (A) of a single tree as:$$begin{array}{c}{text{mass}}_{{rm{w}}}(A)=3.9448times {A}^{1.1068},({N}_{{rm{w}}}=698)\ {text{mass}}_{{rm{f}}}(A)=0.2693times {A}^{0.9441},({N}_{{rm{f}}}=900)\ {text{mass}}_{{rm{r}}}(A)=0.8339times {A}^{1.1730},({N}_{{rm{r}}}=26)end{array}$$The tree mass components of wood, leaves and roots were combined to predict the total mass(A) in kg of a tree from its crown area A in m2:$$text{mass}left(Aright)={text{mass}}_{{rm{w}}}left(Aright)+{text{mass}}_{{rm{f}}}left(Aright)+{text{mass}}_{{rm{r}}}left(Aright)$$As in ref. 1, a crown area of size A  > 200 m2 was split into ({rm{lfloor }}A/100{rm{rfloor }}) areas of size 100 m2 and one area with the remaining m2 if necessary. We converted dry mass to carbon by multiplying with a factor of 0.47 (ref. 44).Uncertainty analysisWe evaluated the uncertainty of our tree crown area mapping and carbon estimation in two ways. First, we quantified our tree crown mapping omission and commission errors by inspecting randomly selected areas from UTM zones 28–37, validating that our neural network generalized over UTM zones consistently (Extended Data Fig. 8).Second, we quantified the relative error of our tree crown area estimation. We consider the uncertainty Δx of a quantity x and the corresponding relative uncertainty δx defined by the absolute and relative error, respectively45. To assess the relative error in crown area estimation resulting from errors by the neural network, we considered external validation data from ref. 1, which were not used in the model-building process. We considered expert-labelled tree crowns as well as the predicted tree crowns from 78 plots of 256 × 256 pixels. The hand-labelled set contained 5,925 trees and the system delineated 5,915 trees. The total hand-labelled tree crown area was 118,327 m2 and the neural network predicted 121,898 m2. This gave a relative error in crown area mapping of δarea = 3.3%. We matched expert-labelled and predicted tree crowns and computed the root-mean-square error (RMSE) per tree, taking overlapping areas and missed trees into account (see Extended Data Fig. 8). We estimated the allometric uncertainty (δallometric) using the data from ref. 19 (see below). The two relative errors δarea and δallometric were combined to an overall uncertainty estimate for the carbon prediction of ±19.8% (see below).Omission and commission errorsWe evaluated our tree crown mapping accuracy by analysis of 1,028 randomly selected 512 × 256-pixel areas over the 9.5° N to 24° N latitude within UTM zones 28–37. Because the drier 60% of our study area only contains 1% of the 9,947,310,221 trees we mapped in the 0–1,000 mm year−1 rainfall zone, we applied an 80% bias for selecting evaluation areas above the 200 mm year−1 precipitation line46, as >98% of tree identifications were above the 200 mm year−1 precipitation isoline. Identified tree polygons were further categorized into tree crown area classes from 0–15 m2, 15–50 m2, 50–200 m2 and >200 m2, with a total of 50,570 trees evaluated. Although a previous study reported greatest uncertainty in both the smallest and largest area classes1, our more expansive work found the greatest uncertainty in our smallest tree class. We excluded from evaluation any tiles that had annual precipitation46 >1,000 mm year−1 and all areas that were devoid of vegetation, leaving us with 850 areas.Seven members of our team evaluated the accuracy in terms of commission and omission by tree crown area classes for the 850 areas. Input data provided for every area were the NDVI layer, the panchromatic shadow layer and the neural net mapping results in each of the four crown area classes. Ancillary data available to evaluators included the centre coordinates for comparison with Google Earth data, the Funk et al.46 rainfall, the acquisition date of the area evaluated and the viewing perspective.We identified areas wrongly classified as tree crowns (commission errors), missed trees (omission errors) and crown areas corresponding to clumped trees (Extended Data Fig. 8). Clumped trees were most common for >200 m2 tree crown area. They were rare in the 3–15 m2 and 15–50 m2 tree classes, which comprise 88% of our tree crowns. In the 850 patches, the number of trees ranged from one tree to 326 trees, with a total of 50,570 trees evaluated and 3,765 errors identified. Overall, the commission and omission error rates were 4.9% and 2.7%, respectively, a net uncertainty of 2.2%.Allometric uncertainty estimationThe prediction of tree carbon from the crown area for a single tree based on crown area alone is inherently uncertain47,48. As the allometric equations are based on three different datasets, we compute their uncertainties independently, combine them and put them in relation to the total carbon measured in the three datasets.The allometric equations were established using an optimal least-squares fit of an affine linear model predicting the logarithmic carbon from the logarithmic tree crown area19. To estimate the uncertainty of the allometric equations, we repeated the fitting using random subsampling. The datasets were randomly split into training data (80%) for fitting the allometric equations and validation data (20%) for assessing the uncertainty. For example, from the root measurements, (({A}_{1},{y}_{1}),ldots ,({A}_{{N}_{{rm{r}}}},,{y}_{{N}_{{rm{r}}}})), we compute ({mu }_{{rm{r}}}=frac{1}{{N}_{{rm{r}}}}mathop{sum }limits_{i=1}^{{N}_{{rm{r}}}}{y}_{i}) and ({hat{mu }}_{{rm{r}}}=frac{1}{{N}_{{rm{r}}}}mathop{sum }limits_{i=1}^{{N}_{{rm{r}}}}{text{mass}}_{{rm{r}}}({A}_{i})). The corresponding error is ({varDelta }_{{rm{r}}}=|{mu }_{{rm{r}}}-{hat{mu }}_{{rm{r}}}|).Because the total carbon for a tree with a certain crown area is the sum of the three carbon components, we add the absolute uncertainties assuming independence45.$${varDelta }_{{rm{a}}{rm{l}}{rm{l}}{rm{o}}{rm{m}}{rm{e}}{rm{t}}{rm{r}}{rm{i}}{rm{c}}}simeq sqrt{{varDelta }_{{rm{f}}}^{2}+{varDelta }_{{rm{w}}}^{2}+{varDelta }_{{rm{r}}}^{2}}$$and compute the relative uncertainty as ({delta }_{text{allometric}}=frac{{varDelta }_{text{allometric}}}{{mu }_{text{mass}}}), in which the average mass μmass is given by the sum of the averages for wood (μw), leaves (μf) and root (μr). This process was repeated ten times, resulting in a mean relative uncertainty of$${bar{delta }}_{{rm{allometric}}}=19.5 % .$$Total carbon uncertaintyWe combine the uncertainties from the neural net mapping and our allometric equations, which can be viewed as considering (1 + A)·(1 + B) with A and B being random variables with standard deviations δarea and δallometric. Neglecting higher-order and interaction terms, we combine the two sources of uncertainty to (delta simeq sqrt{{delta }_{{rm{area}}}^{2}+{bar{delta }}_{{rm{allometric}}}^{2}}), resulting in an uncertainty in total tree carbon for our study of ±19.8%. See also Extended Data Fig. 9 for the RMSEs of our predicted crown areas calculated on external validation data from ref. 1, binned on the basis of the 50th quantiles of the hand-labelled crown areas and converted also into carbon. Extended Data Fig. 10 is a flow diagram summarizing our methods.Our viewerVisualizing our large tree-mapping dataset in an interactive format was essential for quality-control purposes, exploration of the data and hypothesis creation. Creating a web-based viewer serves the purpose of being the initial point of interaction with our dataset for fellow researchers, local stakeholders or the general public. The visualization of more than 10 billion trees in a web browser required maintaining performance, interactivity and individual metadata for each polygon. Users should be able to zoom in to any area within the dataset to view individual tree polygons and query their statistics while at the same time accurately depicting the overall trends of the dataset at lower zoom levels. The visualization also needed to clearly denote where data were missing or possibly affected by clouds or aerosols. Finally, the extent and origin of the source imagery, its acquisition date and a preview of the imagery needed to be available. To accomplish these goals, a vector-tile-based approach was taken, with the data visualized in a Mapbox GL JS map within a React web application. To create vector tiles covering the entire study area, we developed a data-processing pipeline using high-performance computing resources to transform the data into compatible formats, as well as to package, optimize and combine the vector tiles themselves.We used two tracks to store and visualize the results of this study on the web: vector polygon data and generalized rasters representing tree crown density. At the native spatial resolution of 50 cm, the map shows the full-resolution tree polygon dataset. At lower-spatial-resolution zoom levels, rasterized representations of tree density are shown. Visualizing generalized rasters in place of vector polygons improves performance substantially. As users zoom in to higher spatial resolutions, the raster layer fades away and is replaced by the full-resolution polygon layer. Once zoomed far enough to resolve individual polygons, users can click to select a polygon to show a map overlay containing various properties of the tree, as well as the date on which the source imagery was acquired and a link to preview the source imagery.Rainfall dataWe used the rainfall data of Funk et al. to estimate annual rainfall at 5.6-m grids46. We averaged the available data from 1982 to 2017 and extracted the mean annual rainfall for each mapped tree and bilinearly interpolated it to 100 × 100-m resolution. The rainfall data were also used to classify the study area into mean annual precipitation zones: hyper-arid from 0–150 mm year−1, arid from 150–300 mm year−1, semi-arid from 300–600 mm year−1 and sub-humid from 600–1,000 mm year−1 zones. The rainfall data are found at https://data.chc.ucsb.edu/products/CHIRPS-2.0/africa_monthly/ (ref. 46). More

Tucker, C. et al. Nature 615, 80–86 (2023).Article 

Google Scholar 
Bayala, J. et al. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 205, 25–35 (2015).Article 

Google Scholar 
Keesstra, S. D. et al. Soil 2, 111–128 (2016).Article 

Google Scholar 
Dewi, S. et al. Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Ecosyst. Serv. Mgmt 13, 312–329 (2017).Article 

Google Scholar 
Ahlström, A. et al. Science 348, 895–899 (2015).Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Poulter, B. et al. Nature 509, 600–603 (2014).Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Prăvălie, R. et al. Environ. Res. 201, 111580 (2021).Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Reij, C. P. & Smaling, E. M. A. Land Use Policy 25, 410–420 (2008).Article 

Google Scholar 
Zomer, R. J., Bossio, D. A., Trabucco, A., van Noordwijk, M. & Xu, J. Circ. Agric. Syst. 2, 3 (2022).Article 

Google Scholar 
Chomba, S., Sinclair, F., Savadogo, P., Bourne, M. & Lohbeck, M. Front. For. Glob. Change 3, 571679 (2020).Article 

Google Scholar 
Dakpogan, A., Bayala, J., Ouattara, I. & Ellington, E. in United for Lands: From National Coalitions to a Pipeline of Bankable Projects for the Great Green Wall 54–56 (United Nations, 2022).
Google Scholar 
Garrity, D. P. & Bayala, J. in Sustainable Development Through Trees on Farms: Agroforestry in its Fifth Decade (ed. van Noordwijk, M.) 153–175 (World Agroforestry, 2019).
Google Scholar 
Schnell, S., Kleinn, C. & Ståhl, G. Environ. Monit. Assess. 187, 600 (2015).Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar  More

Balashov, S. P. et al. Xanthorhodopsin: a proton pump with a light-harvesting carotenoid antenna. Science 309, 2061–2064 (2005).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Imasheva, E. S., Balashov, S. P., Choi, A. R., Jung, K.-H. & Lanyi, J. K. Reconstitution of Gloeobacter violaceus rhodopsin with a light-harvesting carotenoid antenna. Biochemistry 48, 10948–10955 (2009).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Fuhrman, J. A., Schwalbach, M. S. & Stingl, U. Proteorhodopsins: an array of physiological roles? Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 6, 488–494 (2008).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Vollmers, J. et al. Poles apart: Arctic and Antarctic Octadecabacter strains share high genome plasticity and a new type of xanthorhodopsin. PLoS ONE 8, e63422 (2013).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Bertsova, Y. V., Arutyunyan, A. M. & Bogachev, A. V. Na+-translocating rhodopsin from Dokdonia sp. PRO95 does not contain carotenoid antenna. Biochem. Mosc. 81, 414–419 (2016).Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Misra, R., Eliash, T., Sudo, Y. & Sheves, M. Retinal–salinixanthin interactions in a thermophilic rhodopsin. J. Phys. Chem. B 123, 10–20 (2019).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Béjà, O. et al. Bacterial rhodopsin: evidence for a new type of phototrophy in the sea. Science 289, 1902–1906 (2000).Article 
ADS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Béjà, O., Spudich, E. N., Spudich, J. L., Leclerc, M. & DeLong, E. F. Proteorhodopsin phototrophy in the ocean. Nature 411, 786–789 (2001).Article 
ADS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Atamna-Ismaeel, N. et al. Widespread distribution of proteorhodopsins in freshwater and brackish ecosystems. ISME J. 2, 656–662 (2008).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Frigaard, N.-U., Martinez, A., Mincer, T. J. & DeLong, E. F. Proteorhodopsin lateral gene transfer between marine planktonic Bacteria and Archaea. Nature 439, 847–850 (2006).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Finkel, O. M., Béjà, O. & Belkin, S. Global abundance of microbial rhodopsins. ISME J. 7, 448–451 (2013).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Gómez-Consarnau, L. et al. Microbial rhodopsins are major contributors to the solar energy captured in the sea. Sci. Adv. 5, eaaw8855 (2019).Article 
ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
DeLong, E. F. & Béjà, O. The light-driven proton pump proteorhodopsin enhances bacterial survival during tough times. PLoS Biol. 8, e1000359 (2010).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Munson-McGee, J. H. et al. Decoupling of respiration rates and abundance in marine prokaryoplankton. Nature 612, 764–770 (2022).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Wang, W.-W., Sineshchekov, O. A., Spudich, E. N. & Spudich, J. L. Spectroscopic and photochemical characterization of a deep ocean proteorhodopsin. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 33985–33991 (2003).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Man, D. Diversification and spectral tuning in marine proteorhodopsins. EMBO J. 22, 1725–1731 (2003).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Lanyi, J. K. & Balashov, S. P. in Halophiles and Hypersaline Environments (eds. Ventosa, A., Oren, A. & Ma, Y.) 319–340 (Springer, 2011).Balashov, S. P. et al. Reconstitution of Gloeobacter rhodopsin with echinenone: role of the 4-keto group. Biochemistry 49, 9792–9799 (2010).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Kopejtka, K. et al. A bacterium from a mountain lake harvests light using both proton-pumping xanthorhodopsins and bacteriochlorophyll-based photosystems. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119, e2211018119 (2022).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Pushkarev, A. & Béjà, O. Functional metagenomic screen reveals new and diverse microbial rhodopsins. ISME J. 10, 2331–2335 (2016).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Pushkarev, A. et al. A distinct abundant group of microbial rhodopsins discovered using functional metagenomics. Nature 558, 595–599 (2018).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Chazan, A. et al. Diverse heliorhodopsins detected via functional metagenomics in freshwater Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi and Archaea. Environ. Microbiol. 24, 110–121 (2022).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Inoue, K. et al. A light-driven sodium ion pump in marine bacteria. Nat. Commun. 4, 1678 (2013).Article 
ADS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Bhosale, P. & Bernstein, P. S. Microbial xanthophylls. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 68, 445–455 (2005).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Demmig-Adams, B., Polutchko, S. K. & Adams, W. W. Structure–function–environment relationship of the isomers zeaxanthin and lutein. Photochem 2, 308–325 (2022).Article 

Google Scholar 
Barreiro C. & Barredo J. L. Microbial Carotenoids: Methods and Protocols (Humana Press, 2018).Ram, S., Mitra, M., Shah, F., Tirkey, S. R. & Mishra, S. Bacteria as an alternate biofactory for carotenoid production: a review of its applications, opportunities and challenges. J. Funct. Foods 67, 103867 (2020).Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Shibata, M. et al. Oligomeric states of microbial rhodopsins determined by high-speed atomic force microscopy and circular dichroic spectroscopy. Sci. Rep. 8, 8262 (2018).Article 
ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Luecke, H. et al. Crystallographic structure of xanthorhodopsin, the light-driven proton pump with a dual chromophore. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 16561–16565 (2008).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Chuon, K. et al. Assembly of natively synthesized dual chromophores into functional actinorhodopsin. Front. Microbiol. 12, 652328 (2021).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Yoshizawa, S., Kawanabe, A., Ito, H., Kandori, H. & Kogure, K. Diversity and functional analysis of proteorhodopsin in marine Flavobacteria. Environ. Microbiol. 14, 1240–1248 (2012).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Ahmed, F. et al. Profiling of carotenoids and antioxidant capacity of microalgae from subtropical coastal and brackish waters. Food Chem. 165, 300–306 (2014).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Shihoya, W. et al. Crystal structure of heliorhodopsin. Nature 574, 132–136 (2019).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Kishi, K. E. et al. Structural basis for channel conduction in the pump-like channelrhodopsin ChRmine. Cell 185, 672–689.e23 (2022).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Balashov, S. P., Imasheva, E. S., Wang, J. M. & Lanyi, J. K. Excitation energy-transfer and the relative orientation of retinal and carotenoid in xanthorhodopsin. Biophys. J. 95, 2402–2414 (2008).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Lakowicz, J. R. (ed.) in Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy 27–61 (Springer, 2006).Dana, J. et al. Testing the fate of nascent holes in CdSe nanocrystals with sub-10 fs pump–probe spectroscopy. Nanoscale 13, 1982–1987 (2021).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Polívka, T. et al. Femtosecond carotenoid to retinal energy transfer in xanthorhodopsin. Biophys. J. 96, 2268–2277 (2009).Article 
ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Iyer, E. S. S., Gdor, I., Eliash, T., Sheves, M. & Ruhman, S. Efficient femtosecond energy transfer from carotenoid to retinal in Gloeobacter rhodopsin–salinixanthin complex. J. Phys. Chem. B 119, 2345–2349 (2015).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Doi, S., Tsukamoto, T., Yoshizawa, S. & Sudo, Y. An inhibitory role of Arg-84 in anion channelrhodopsin-2 expressed in Escherichia coli. Sci. Rep. 7, 41879 (2017).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Nagiri, C. et al. Crystal structure of human endothelin ETB receptor in complex with peptide inverse agonist IRL2500. Commun. Biol. 2, 236 (2019).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Yamashita, K., Hirata, K. & Yamamoto, M. KAMO: towards automated data processing for microcrystals. Acta Crystallogr. D Struct. Biol. 74, 441–449 (2018).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Kabsch, W. XDS. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 66, 125–132 (2010).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
McCoy, A. J. et al. Phaser crystallographic software. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 40, 658–674 (2007).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Jumper, J. et al. Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold. Nature 596, 583–589 (2021).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Emsley, P., Lohkamp, B., Scott, W. G. & Cowtan, K. Features and development of Coot. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 66, 486–501 (2010).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Afonine, P. V. et al. Towards automated crystallographic structure refinement with phenix.refine.Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 68, 352–367 (2012).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Zivanov, J. et al. New tools for automated high-resolution cryo-EM structure determination in RELION-3.eLife 7, e42166 (2018).Punjani, A., Rubinstein, J. L., Fleet, D. J. & Brubaker, M. A. cryoSPARC: algorithms for rapid unsupervised cryo-EM structure determination. Nat. Methods 14, 290–296 (2017).Punjani, A., Zhang, H. & Fleet, D. J. Non-uniform refinement: adaptive regularization improves single-particle cryo-EM reconstruction. Nat. Methods 17, 1214–1221 (2020).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Rosenthal, P. B. & Henderson, R. Optimal determination of particle orientation, absolute hand, and contrast loss in single-particle electron cryomicroscopy. J. Mol. Biol. 333, 721–745 (2003).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Emsley, P. & Cowtan, K. Coot: model-building tools for molecular graphics. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 60, 2126–2132 (2004).Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Adams, P. D. et al. PHENIX: a comprehensive Python-based system for macromolecular structure solution. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 66, 213–221 (2010).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Yamashita, K., Palmer, C. M., Burnley, T. & Murshudov, G. N. Cryo-EM single-particle structure refinement and map calculation using Servalcat. Acta Crystallogr. D Struct. Biol. 77, 1282–1291 (2021).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Edgar, R. C. Search and clustering orders of magnitude faster than BLAST. Bioinformatics 26, 2460–2461 (2010).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Inoue, K. et al. Exploration of natural red-shifted rhodopsins using a machine learning-based Bayesian experimental design. Commun. Biol. 4, 362 (2021).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Salazar, G. et al. Gene expression changes and community turnover differentially shape the global ocean metatranscriptome. Cell 179, 1068–1083.e21 (2019).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Chen, I.-M. A. et al. The IMG/M data management and analysis system v.6.0: new tools and advanced capabilities. Nucleic Acids Res. 49, D751–D763 (2021).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Nayfach, S. et al. A genomic catalog of Earth’s microbiomes. Nat. Biotechnol. 39, 499–509 (2021).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Sunagawa, S. et al. Metagenomic species profiling using universal phylogenetic marker genes. Nat. Methods 10, 1196–1199 (2013).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Wickham, H. in ggplot2 (eds Gentleman, R., Hornik, K. & Parmigiani, G.) 189–201 (Springer, 2016).Katoh, K., Misawa, K., Kuma, K. & Miyata, T. MAFFT: a novel method for rapid multiple sequence alignment based on fast Fourier transform. Nucleic Acids Res. 30, 3059–3066 (2002).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Capella-Gutiérrez, S., Silla-Martínez, J. M. & Gabaldón, T. trimAl: a tool for automated alignment trimming in large-scale phylogenetic analyses. Bioinformatics 25, 1972–1973 (2009).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Nguyen, L.-T., Schmidt, H. A., von Haeseler, A. & Minh, B. Q. IQ-TREE: a fast and effective stochastic algorithm for estimating maximum-likelihood phylogenies. Mol. Biol. Evol. 32, 268–274 (2015).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Hoang, D. T., Chernomor, O., von Haeseler, A., Minh, B. Q. & Vinh, L. S. UFBoot2: improving the ultrafast bootstrap approximation. Mol. Biol. Evol. 35, 518–522 (2018).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar  More

Satellite imagery provides insight into where and how Earth’s surface changes, particularly in remote areas where in situ measurements are generally lacking. With the large volumes of data produced by satellites, we need streamlined computational pipelines for optimized processing capabilities. Although a multitude of platforms exists to process satellite data, these often have expensive license requirements that price out much of the geospatial community. Moreover, many of these platforms are propriety, but transparency is key when developing geospatial processing workflows. Open-source programming is critical to the creation of efficient imagery processing pipelines. More

Lawrence, D. & Vandecar, K. Effects of tropical deforestation on climate and agriculture. Nat. Clim. Change 5, 27–36 (2015).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Spracklen, D. V., Baker, J. C. A., Garcia-Carreras, L. & Marsham, J. H. The effects of tropical vegetation on rainfall. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 43, 193–218 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Bonan, G. B. Forests and climate change: forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science 320, 1444–1449 (2008).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Spracklen, D. V., Arnold, S. R. & Taylor, C. M. Observations of increased tropical rainfall preceded by air passage over forests. Nature 489, 282–285 (2012).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Staal, A. et al. Forest-rainfall cascades buffer against drought across the Amazon. Nat. Clim. Change 8, 539–543 (2018).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Baker, J. C. A. & Spracklen, D. V. Divergent representation of precipitation recycling in the Amazon and the Congo in CMIP6 models. Geophys. Res. Lett. 49, e2021GL095136 (2022).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Guan, K. et al. Photosynthetic seasonality of global tropical forests constrained by hydroclimate. Nat. Geosci. 8, 284–289 (2015).Article 
ADS 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Staal, A. et al. Hysteresis of tropical forests in the 21st century. Nat. Commun. 11, 4978 (2020).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Zemp, D. C. et al. Self-amplified Amazon forest loss due to vegetation-atmosphere feedbacks. Nat. Commun. 8, 14681 (2017).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Hansen, M. C. et al. High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science 342, 850–854 (2013).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Chagnon, F. J. F. & Bras, R. L. Contemporary climate change in the Amazon. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L13703 (2005).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Khanna, J., Medvigy, D., Fueglistaler, S. & Walko, R. Regional dry-season climate changes due to three decades of Amazonian deforestation. Nat. Clim. Change 7, 200–204 (2017).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Garcia-Carreras, L. & Parker, D. J. How does local tropical deforestation affect rainfall? Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L19802 (2011).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Leite-Filho, A. T., Soares-Filho, B. S., Davis, J. L., Abrahão, G. M. & Börner, J. Deforestation reduces rainfall and agricultural revenues in the Brazilian Amazon. Nat. Commun. 12, 2591 (2021).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
McAlpine, C. A. et al. Forest loss and Borneo’s climate. Environ. Res. Lett. 13, 044009 (2018).Chapman, S. et al. Compounding impact of deforestation on Borneo’s climate during El Niño events. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 084006 (2020).Spracklen, D. V. & Garcia-Carreras, L. The impact of Amazonian deforestation on Amazon basin rainfall. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42, 9546–9552 (2015).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Jiang, Y. et al. Modeled response of South American climate to three decades of deforestation. J. Clim. 34, 2189–2203 (2021).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Harris, I., Osborn, T. J., Jones, P. & Lister, D. Version 4 of the CRU TS monthly high-resolution gridded multivariate climate dataset. Sci. Data 7, 109 (2020).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Fassoni-Andrade, A. C. et al. Amazon hydrology from space: scientific advances and future challenges. Rev. Geophys. 59, e2020RG000728 (2021).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Haiden, T., Janousek, M., Vitart, F., Ferranti, L. & Prates, F. Evaluation of ECMWF Forecasts, Including the 2019 Upgrade. ECMWF Technical Memorandum No. 853 (ECMWF, 2019).Esquivel-Muelbert, A. et al. Compositional response of Amazon forests to climate change. Glob. Change Biol. 25, 39–56 (2019).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Brum, M. et al. ENSO effects on the transpiration of eastern Amazon trees. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 373, 20180085 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Bagley, J. E., Desai, A. R., Harding, K. J., Snyder, P. K. & Foley, J. A. Drought and deforestation: has land cover change influenced recent precipitation extremes in the Amazon? J. Clim. 27, 345–361 (2014).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Wunderling, N. et al. Recurrent droughts increase risk of cascading tipping events by outpacing adaptive capacities in the Amazon rainforest. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119, e2120777119 (2022).Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Fu, R. & Li, W. The influence of the land surface on the transition from dry to wet season in Amazonia. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 78, 97–110 (2004).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Leite-Filho, A. T., de Sousa Pontes, V. Y. & Costa, M. H. Effects of deforestation on the onset of the rainy season and the duration of dry spells in southern Amazonia. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 124, 5268–5281 (2019).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Negri, A. J., Adler, R. F., Xu, L. & Surratt, J. The Impact of Amazonian deforestation on dry season rainfall. J. Clim. 17, 1306–1319 (2004).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Chagnon, F. J. F., Bras, R. L. & Wang, J. Climatic shift in patterns of shallow clouds over the Amazon. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31, L24212 (2004).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Chambers, J. Q. & Artaxo, P. Biosphere–atmosphere interactions: deforestation size influences rainfall. Nat. Clim. Change 7, 175–176 (2017).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Baudena, M., Tuinenburg, O. A., Ferdinand, P. A. & Staal, A. Effects of land-use change in the Amazon on precipitation are likely underestimated. Glob. Change Biol. 27, 5580–5587 (2021).Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Duku, C. & Hein, L. The impact of deforestation on rainfall in Africa: a data-driven assessment. Environ. Res. Lett. 16, 064044 (2021).Akkermans, T., Thiery, W. & Van Lipzig, N. P. M. The regional climate impact of a realistic future deforestation scenario in the Congo basin. J. Clim. 27, 2714–2734 (2014).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Staal, A. et al. Feedback between drought and deforestation in the Amazon. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 044024 (2020).Xu, X. et al. Deforestation triggering irreversible transition in Amazon hydrological cycle. Environ. Res. Lett. 17, 034037 (2022).Kooperman, G. J. et al. Forest response to rising CO2 drives zonally asymmetric rainfall change over tropical land. Nat. Clim. Change 8, 434–440 (2018).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Chen, Z. et al. Global land monsoon precipitation changes in CMIP6 projections. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47, e2019GL086902 (2020).Stickler, C. M. et al. Dependence of hydropower energy generation on forests in the Amazon Basin at local and regional scales. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 110, 9601–9606 (2013).Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Challinor, A. J. et al. A meta-analysis of crop yield under climate change and adaptation. Nat. Clim. Change 4, 287–291 (2014).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Strand, J. et al. Spatially explicit valuation of the Brazilian Amazon forest’s ecosystem services. Nat. Sustain. 1, 657–664 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Potapov, P. et al. Global maps of cropland extent and change show accelerated cropland expansion in the twenty-first century. Nat. Food 3, 19–28 (2022).Article 

Google Scholar 
Li, Y. et al. Deforestation-induced climate change reduces carbon storage in remaining tropical forests. Nat. Commun. 13, 1964 (2022).Article 
ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Aragão, L. E. O. C. et al. Interactions between rainfall, deforestation and fires during recent years in the Brazilian Amazonia. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 363, 1779–1785 (2008).Article 

Google Scholar 
Marengo, J. A. et al. Changes in climate and land use over the Amazon region: current and future variability and trends. Front. Earth Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2018.00228 (2018).Jiang, Y. et al. Widespread increase of boreal summer dry season length over the Congo rainforest. Nat. Clim. Change https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0512-y (2019).Van Der Ent, R. J. & Savenije, H. H. G. Length and time scales of atmospheric moisture recycling. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11, 1853–1863 (2011).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Sorí, R., Nieto, R., Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Drumond, A. & Gimeno, L. A Lagrangian perspective of the hydrological cycle in the Congo River basin. Earth Syst. Dyn. 8, 653–675 (2017).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
van der Ent, R. J., Savenije, H. H. G., Schaefli, B. & Steele-Dunne, S. C. Origin and fate of atmospheric moisture over continents. Water Resour. Res. 46, W09525 (2010).ADS 

Google Scholar 
Feng, Y. et al. Doubling of annual forest carbon loss over the tropics during the early twenty-first century. Nat. Sustain. 4, 441–451 (2022).
Google Scholar 
Tuinenburg, O. A., Bosmans, J. H. C. & Staal, A. The global potential of forest restoration for drought mitigation. Environ. Res. Lett. 17, 034045 (2022).Met Office. Cartopy: a cartographic python library with a Matplotlib interface 2010–2015. Met Office https://scitools.org.uk/cartopy (2022).Hoyer, S. & Hamman, J. xarray: N-D labeled arrays and datasets in Python. J. Open Res. Softw. https://doi.org/10.5334/jors.148 (2017).Zhuang, J. xESMF. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1134365 (2022).Baker, J. C. A. & Spracklen, D. V. Climate benefits of intact Amazon forests and the biophysical consequences of disturbance. Front. For. Glob. Change https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2019.00047 (2019).Schaaf, C. & Wang, Z. MCD43A3 MODIS/Terra+Aqua BRDF/Albedo Daily L3 Global – 500m V006. NASA EOSDIS Land Processes DAAC https://doi.org/10.5067/modis/mcd43a3.006 (2015).Waskom, M. Seaborn: statistical data visualization. J. Open Source Softw. 6, 3021 (2021).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Chen, M. et al. Global land use for 2015–2100 at 0.05° resolution under diverse socioeconomic and climate scenarios. Sci. Data 7, 320 (2020).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Funk, C. et al. The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations—a new environmental record for monitoring extremes. Sci. Data 2, 150066 (2015).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Xie, P. et al. NOAA Climate Data Record (CDR) of CPC Morphing technique (CMORPH) high resolution global precipitation estimates, version 1. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information https://doi.org/10.25921/w9va-q159 (2019).Xie, P. et al. A gauge-based analysis of daily precipitation over East Asia. J. Hydrometeorol. 8, 607–626 (2007).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Hersbach, H. et al. The ERA5 global reanalysis. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 146, 1999–2049 (2020).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Elke, R., Hänsel, S., Finger, P., Schneider, U. & Ziese, M. GPCC Climatology Version 2022 at 0.25°: monthly land-surface precipitation climatology for every month and the total year from rain-gauges built on GTS-based and historical data. GPCC https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD_GPCC/CLIM_M_V2022_025 (2022).Huffman, G. J. A., Behrangi, R. F., Adler, D. T., Bolvin, E. J. & Nelkin, G. G. Introduction to the new version 3 GPCP monthly global precipitation analysis. GPCP https://docserver.gesdisc.eosdis.nasa.gov/public/project/MEaSUREs/GPCP/Release_Notes.GPCPV3.2.pdf (2022).Hou, A. Y. et al. The global precipitation measurement mission. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 95, 701–722 (2014).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Kobayashi, S. et al. The JRA-55 reanalysis: general specifications and basic characteristics. J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 93, 5–48 (2015).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Gelaro, R. et al. The modern-era retrospective analysis for research and applications, version 2 (MERRA-2). J. Clim. 30, 5419–5454 (2017).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Chen, M., Xie, P. & Janowiak, J. E. Global land precipitation: a 50-yr monthly analysis based on gauge observations. J. Hydrometeorol. 3, 249–266 (2002).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Nguyen, P. et al. The CHRS data portal, an easily accessible public repository for PERSIANN global satellite precipitation data. Sci. Data 6, 1180296 (2019).Article 

Google Scholar 
Ashouri, H. et al. PERSIANN-CDR: daily precipitation climate data record from multisatellite observations for hydrological and climate studies. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 96, 69–83 (2015).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Nguyen, P. et al. Persiann dynamic infrared–rain rate (PDIR-now): a near-real-time, quasi-global satellite precipitation dataset. J. Hydrometeorol. 21, 2893–2906 (2020).Article 
ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Sadeghi, M. et al. PERSIANN-CCS-CDR, a 3-hourly 0.04° global precipitation climate data record for heavy precipitation studies. Sci. Data 8, 157 (2021).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Huffman, G. J. et al. The TRMM Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA): quasi-global, multiyear, combined-sensor precipitation estimates at fine scales. J. Hydrometeorol. 8, 38–55 (2007).Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar 
Matsuura, K. & Willmott, C. J. Terrestrial precipitation: 1900-2017 gridded monthly time series. Global Precipitation Archive http://climate.geog.udel.edu/~climate/html_pages/Global2017/README.GlobalTsP2017.html (2018). More

RESEARCH BRIEFINGS
01 March 2023

Tropical deforestation affects local and regional precipitation, but the effects are uncertain and have not been determined using observations. Satellite data sets were used to show reductions in precipitation over areas of tropical forest loss, with stronger reductions seen as the deforested area expands. More

RESEARCH BRIEFINGS
01 March 2023

Global spatial and temporal patterns of coastal phytoplankton blooms were characterized using daily satellite imaging between 2003 and 2020. These blooms were identified on the coast of 126 of the 153 ocean-bordering countries examined. The extent and frequency of blooms have increased globally over the past two decades. More