Ecology

Nature Video
05 November 2021

Whale-cams reveal how much they really eat

Baleen whales consume twice as much krill as previously estimated.

Sara Reardon

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Sara Reardon

Sara Reardon is a freelance writer in Bozeman, Montana.

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Tagging whales with cameras and sensors has allowed researchers to calculate how much food these huge creatures are consuming. It’s the most accurate estimate yet and reveals an even more significant impact of whales on ocean ecosystems than was previously known.Read the paper here.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-03026-z

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NEWS
05 November 2021

COP26 climate pledges: What scientists think so far

Nations have promised to end deforestation, curb methane emissions and stop public investment in coal power. Researchers warn that the real work of COP26 is yet to come.

Ehsan Masood

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Jeff Tollefson

Ehsan Masood

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Jeff Tollefson

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Methane burns at an oil pit. Among the key pledges so far at COP26 is an agreement to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030.Credit: Orjan F. Ellingvag/Corbis via Getty

The first few days of the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) have seen a flurry of announcements from world leaders promising to tackle climate change — from plans to phase out public finance for coal-fired power, to a pledge to end deforestation. This year, many big names — including US President Joe Biden and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi — attended the first two days of the conference to make big announcements.
COP26 climate summit: A scientists’ guide to a momentous meeting
This is different from what has happened at most previous COP summits, says Beth Martin, a specialist in climate negotiation who is part of RINGO (Research and Independent Non-Governmental Organizations), a network of organizations allowed to observe the COP26 negotiations. Usually, the highest-profile figures aren’t present during the first week, but arrive near the end of the meeting to help bridge differences in time for an agreed statement, and for the obligatory ‘UN family photo’.Nature asked researchers what they think of the pledges that have been made so far, as negotiators from some 200 countries prepare to dive into more detailed talks.Methane emissionsOne of the key developments in the first week was an agreement to curb emissions of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas that is second only to carbon dioxide in terms of its impact on the climate. Led by the United States and the European Union, the global methane pledge seeks to curb methane emissions by 30% by 2030, and has been signed by more than 100 countries.
Control methane to slow global warming — fast
“Obviously, as a scientist you’d say, ‘Well, a 50% reduction in the methane emissions by 2030 would be even better,’ but it’s a good start,” says Tim Lenton, who heads the Global Systems Institute at the University of Exeter, UK. “It’s an additional lever that could really help us limit warming.”Research has shown1 that curbing methane emissions using existing technologies could shave up to 0.5 °C off global temperatures by 2100. As with carbon dioxide, however, limiting methane emissions will not happen on its own.With his climate agenda facing challenges in Congress, Biden made methane a centrepiece of his commitments in Glasgow by announcing a new regulation to curb methane emissions from the oil and gas industry. Put forward this week by the US Environmental Protection Agency, the rule would require companies to curb methane emissions from their facilities by 74% over the coming decade, compared with 2005 levels. If implemented as proposed, it could prevent the release of some 37 million tonnes of methane by 2035 — equivalent to more than the annual carbon emissions from the nation’s fleets of passenger vehicles and commercial aircraft.India’s net-zero goalAfter delaying expected updates to India’s climate commitments by more than a year, Modi captured the world’s attention early in the summit by announcing that his country would seek to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070. The deadline is decades after that of many other countries that have made net-zero commitments, and it remains unclear whether India is committing to curbing just carbon dioxide emissions, or the broader category of greenhouse-gas emissions. But scientists say the announcement could mark a significant step forward if India follows through.
Scientists cheer India’s ambitious carbon-zero climate pledge
“We are definitely taken by surprise: this is much more than we were expecting to hear,” says Ulka Kelkar, an economist in Bengaluru who heads the Indian climate programme for the World Resources Institute, an environmental think tank based in Washington DC.Many scientists remain sceptical about mid-century net-zero pledges, in part because it’s easy to make long-term promises but hard to make the difficult short-term decisions that are required to meet those pledges. But India’s commitment includes measurable near-term targets, such as a pledge to provide 50% of the nation’s power through renewable resources and to reduce projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes of carbon dioxide by 2030.Questions remain about how these targets will be defined and measured, but models indicate that there is a 50% chance such net-zero pledges could limit global warming to 2 °C or less, if fully implemented by all countries.

More than 130 countries have agreed to halt and reverse deforestation by 2030.Credit: Joao Laet/AFP via Getty

Climate cashAmong a cascade of climate-finance announcements this week is a pledge from more than 450 organizations in the financial sector — including banks, fund managers and insurance companies — in 45 countries to move US$130 trillion of funds under their control into investments where the recipient is committed to net-zero emissions by 2050.The pledging institutions, which are part of the Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero, have not yet specified interim targets or timetables to achieve this goal. On 1 November, UN secretary-general António Guterres announced that a group of independent experts would be convened to propose standards for such commitments to net-zero emissions.
The broken $100-billion promise of climate finance – and how to fix it
Governments also announced new investments in clean technologies. And more than 40 countries, including the United Kingdom, Poland, South Korea and Vietnam, have committed to phasing out coal power in the 2030s (for major economies) or 2040s (globally), and to stopping public funding for new coal-fired power plants.“All of this is significant,” says Cristián Samper, an ecologist and president of the Wildlife Conservation Society in New York City. “The involvement of the financial sector and of ministers of finance and energy” in the meeting “is a game-changer”.However, the announcements have been overshadowed by governments’ failure to meet a 2009 pledge to provide $100 billion annually in climate finance for low- and middle-income countries by 2020. Reports suggest that it will take another two years to reach this goal, and that around 70% of the finance will be provided as loans.“We all assumed it would be grant finance. We didn’t pay attention to the fine print or expect that developed countries would hide behind loans,” says climate economist Tariq Banuri, a former director of sustainable development at the UN.Ending deforestationMore than 130 countries have pledged to halt and reverse forest-loss and land degradation by 2030. The signatories, which include Brazil, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Indonesia, are home to 90% of the world’s forests.It is not the first such commitment: the 2014 New York Declaration on Forests, signed by a broad coalition of nearly 200 countries, regional governments, companies, indigenous groups and others, called for halving deforestation by 2020 and “striving” to end it by 2030.
The United Nations must get its new biodiversity targets right
There is also a long-standing UN pledge to slow down and eventually reverse the loss of biodiversity. But this remains unfulfilled and there is no official monitoring. Researchers say the latest target is unlikely to be met without an enforcement mechanism.Separately, a group of high-income countries has pledged $12 billion in public finance for forest protection between 2021 and 2025, but has not specified how the funding will be provided. A statement from the group, which includes Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and EU countries, says governments will “work closely with the private sector” to “leverage vital funding from private sources to deliver change at scale”. This suggests that the finance is likely to be dominated by loans. Still, Samper says that there are reasons to be optimistic. Few previous climate COPs discussed nature and forests on the scale now seen in Glasgow. In the past, if biodiversity was mentioned at a climate meeting, “it was like the Martians had landed”, he says, because biodiversity and climate are treated as separate challenges by the UN. “We’ve never seen this much attention. It could be a pivot point.”

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-03034-z

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NEWS
05 November 2021

Whales’ gigantic appetites, climate fears — the week in infographics

Nature highlights three key infographics from the week in science and research.

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Climate scientists are scepticalThe momentous COP26 climate summit now under way in Glasgow, UK, represents one final opportunity for the governments of the world to craft a plan to meet their most ambitious goals for curbing climate change. Pledges are already flowing in, but the meeting has another week to run and much is still to be decided. Ahead of the summit, Nature conducted an anonymous survey of the 233 living authors of a climate-science report published in August by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and received responses from 92 scientists — about 40% of the group. Their answers suggest strong scepticism that governments will markedly slow the pace of global warming, despite political promises made by international leaders as part of the landmark 2015 Paris climate agreement. Six in ten of the respondents, for example, said that they expect the world to warm by at least 3 °C by the end of the century, compared with conditions before the Industrial Revolution. That is far beyond the Paris agreement’s goal to limit warming to 1.5–2 °C.

Source: Nature analysis

Africa’s clinical trialsA shocking lack of COVID-19 vaccines in Africa, and the cost of existing treatments, means the continent really needs affordable, readily available COVID-19 drugs. These could reduce COVID-19 symptoms, lower the burden of disease on health-care systems and reduce deaths. The pandemic has given clinical research in Africa a boost: the Pan African Clinical Trials Registry recorded more clinical trials in 2020 than in 2019, and the number for 2021 is also on track to exceed 2019. But trials of COVID-19 drugs are still lacking in Africa, where they face infrastructure and recruitment challenges. One solution could be to establish a body to coordinate treatment trials on the continent.

Source: https://pactr.samrc.ac.za

The gluttony of whalesHow much do baleen whales, the largest known animals that have ever lived, eat? Three times as much as previously thought, report researchers who used cameras to study seven species of baleen whale. Writing in Nature, the researchers also suggest a feeding cycle involving iron and whale poo that could explain how such gluttony is possible. When whales eat iron-rich prey such as krill, they use the prey’s protein to make blubber — and defecate the iron-rich remains. Whale faeces might then provide a source of iron for microscopic marine algae called phytoplankton, and drive blooms of a type of plankton called diatoms. Diatoms, in turn, can move iron along the food chain when they are eaten by krill, which also excrete iron. Whales can further aid iron availability by mixing ocean waters through their vigorous tail movements.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-03066-5

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Identification and characterization of biotic and abiotic components in a penguin colony using RGB and multispectral camerasFigure 1 shows two image mosaics of a Chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarcticus) colony, composed of 3800 pictures taken during a 29-min flight at 100 m altitude with a multispectral camera (MicaSense RedEdge-MX) using RGB bands (i.e., Red-668, Green-560 and Blue-475) (Fig. 1A) and the 10 wavelength bands covering the spectrum from visible to near-infrared light (Fig. 1B). With a resolution of 6 cm/pixel, penguin nests are clearly visible in the RGB mosaic, which are characterized by the absence of vegetation and with a predominant pink/brown color due to the abundance of guano deposition. The RGB mosaic also shows snow patches (white color), moss beds (green color) and one small lagoon with a bloom of red-pigmented greenalgae (Chlorophyceae) (Fig. 1A, upper right corner). Red algae (Chlamydomonas nivalis) patches on snow and ice are visible by zooming into a region of ice (Fig. 1A). More detailed information is obtained when the light spectrum from visible to near-infrared is used. Using the 10 wavelength bands, a thematic map was generated with the QGIS software and using a non-supervised classification method (Fig. 1B). Here it is possible to distinguish up to four species of mosses and three types of penguin guano that was verified with field observations.Figure 1Photomosaics of Vapour Col Chinstrap penguin colony on Deception Island composed of 3800 pictures taken at 100 m altitude with a 10 bands multispectral camera onboard a hexacopter, achieving 6 cm/pixel size. Panel (A): visible RGB mosaic (Red-668, Green-560 and Blue-475) with a zoom capture showing red snow patch; Panel (B): thematic map generated through non-supervised classification method.Full size imageDeception Island harbors up to 54 species of mosses, of which 13 species (including two endemics) have not been recorded elsewhere in the Antarctic. This, together with eight species of liverwort and 75 species of lichen, makes Deception Island an exceptional and unique place in Antarctica with legal protection under the Antarctic Treaty3. The use of a multispectral sensor onboard the UAV provides unique information to detect, classify and monitor moss beds without anthropogenic impacts. Antarctic moss bed health has already been assessed using multispectral sensors onboard UAVs12. Taxonomic identification would be feasible by indentifying previously each species in the field and later assigning the spectral signature using the UAV, as recently suggested by Miranda et al. (2020), who monitored lichens and mosses in the Antarctic using a combination of satellite imagery and UAVs13.Penguin guano has been suggested to be an important source of bioactive metals (e.g. Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn) for the sea surface waters, potentially fueling primary production of the Southern Ocean14. It has been suggested that the penguin species that feed mainly on Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) (i.e., Chinstrap: Pygoscelis antarcticus, Adélie: Pygoscelis adeliae and Gentoo: Pygoscelis papua) excrete the highest concentrations of these bioactive metals15. Guano from these three congeneric penguin species has revealed the presence of microplastics across the Antarctic5. However, in order to estimate the magnitude of penguin fecal products that reach the sea, it is necessary to quantify the amount of guano excreted by the penguin colonies on land. This is possible with the multispectral reflectance data obtained from the UAV, which not only identify the guano coverage but also distinguishes different types of guano. Guano color is the result of diet, which, in turn, is related to the phase of the breeding cycle; therefore, a diet rich in krill is characterized by an excretion of pink guano, while a diet predominantly based on fish implies white guano16. Dark guano is the result of the mixture of guano with the soils that produce mud during wet precipitation.It is increasingly common in the Arctic and Antarctic to find well-developed algae blooms as highly visible red patches on the snow surface caused by red-pigmented green algae (Chlorophyceae), and that produce the phenomenon commonly-known as red snow17. These algal blooms play a crucial role in decreasing the snow-surface albedo and, consequently, accelerating the melt rate, as well as in nutrient and carbon cycling18,19. Mapping and monitoring the extent of snow algal blooms have so far been focused on satellite remote sensing; however, the spectral, temporal and spatial resolution of multi-spectral satellite imagery limits the study of most snow and ice algae18. Images taken from our UAV can enable the detection of patches of red snow on the surface snow with centimetric resolution (Fig. 1A). In addition, the image mosaic reveals the existence of a red snow bloom in a small pond located in a valley inside the colony (Supplementary Fig. S1). To the best of our knowledge, the existence of this bloom has not been previously reported and its monitoring could provide relevant information about the formation and proliferation of this bloom and its impact on cryospheric environments.As a whole, the image mosaic of the Chinstrap penguin colony in Vapour Col (the second largest breeding colony in the island with about 12,000 pairs of penguins20) may provide unique information about the different ecological niches linked to a penguin colony and their interactions. For example, the distribution and type of guano as nutrient and metal sources could be influencing the distribution and speciation of the flora in the area.3D geological formation using RGB cameraDeception Island is a complex volcanic system formed as a result of the explosive eruption of basaltic-to-andesitic magmas21. Among its multiple structures and stratigraphy, we surveyed the Murature formation, a consolidated andesitic lapilli tuff22. Using the quadcopter with a RGB camera and the software Pix4D we created a 3D photogrammetry of the Murature formation (Fig. 2; Supplementary Movie S1). The software uses a Structure from Motion photogrammetry algorithm, where obtained 3D points are interpolated to form a triangulated irregular network in order to obtain digital Surface model (DSM). This DSM is then used to project every image pixel and to calculate the georeferenced orthomosaic. For the Murature formation, the photogrammetry was generated with 843 pictures obtained from three 20-min flights at an altitude of 40 meters, taking pictures from two different angles to obtain the heights of the features (60° and 90°). With 1.4 cm/pixel resolution the resulting mosaic provides a unique view of the geological formation that will support the study of how the rocks were formed and its evolution in relation to the various geological processes that occurred on the island. 3D photogrammetry is also useful in geomorphological research. Specifically, in Deception Island morphometrics studies of landform (e.g. Crater and cone diameters, depths, slopes, heights, etc.) are useful to estimate the eruptive recurrence of the island, and in turn, for advising volcanic hazards23.Figure 23D photogrammetry of the Murature formation built with 843 RGB pictures taken from the RGB Hasselblad camera quadcopter DJI Mavic 2 Zoom at 40-m altitude, achieving 1.4 cm/pixel size.Full size imageThermal imagery to estimate animal abundance and to detect thermal anomaliesThe combination of UAV technology with a thermal-imaging camera is very useful for studying and monitoring wildlife and thermal anomalies on Deception Island. Chinstrap penguin and fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) heat signatures were detected at Vapour Col and Baily Head, respectively (Fig. 3A, E). Figure 3A shows a mosaic from a Vapour Col section composed of 336 images taken with a thermal camera (FLIR Vue Pro R) onboard the hexacopter during a 29-min flight at 100 m altitude, whereas Fig. 3C shows one thermal picture of fur seals at Baily Head. Penguins and fur seals, with a thermal signature of 15 °C and 26 °C, respectively, are clearly identified. Penguins are highly sensitive to climate change and are considered “marine sentinels” for quantifying environmental change in the Southern Ocean24. However, the distribution and population dynamics of species such as the Chinstrap penguin are not well understood, mainly because they nest in remote and rugged areas, on-the-ground census work is difficult and sporadic25. As demonstrated for Adelia penguins26 the use of thermal imagery would allow reliable population estimates of Chinstrap penguins. Even, the use of RGB aerial images for animal counting would be far more accurate than from land-based surveys. Nevertheless, the scientific challenge is to develop a machine learning algorithm that can distinguish between animal species, based on their morphology and unique thermal fingerprint, which is only feasible using the high resolution provided by UAVs.Figure 3Thermal imagery. Panel (A): thermal mosaic of a section of Vapour Col (8.5 cm/pixel). Penguins are distinguished throughout the colony as small dots around 15 °C; Panel (B) and (D): RGB (Red-668, Green-560 and Blue-475 bands) and thermal picture of fumarole at Fumarole Bay (5.4 cm/pixel), respectively; Panel (C) and (E): RGB and Thermal image of Fur seals at Baily Head (5.4 cm/pixel), respectively.Full size imageOther useful application of thermal cameras onboard UAVs on Deception Island is the easy and precise detection and monitoring of thermal anomalies. Figure 3B–D shows a thermal picture of one of the multiple fumaroles on the island, reaching temperatures above 90 °C. Seismic monitoring of volcanos on Deception Island has being ongoing since 1986, including many recorded volcano-tectonic earthquakes, long-period events and volcanic tremor27. There have been six documented volcanic eruptions on the island between 1841 and 197128, nowadays volcanic and geothermal activities are limited to fumaroles and hot sands. Monitoring of these fumaroles using UAVs can provide a key in surveillance for early warming systems alerting of volcano activity on the island. UAVs not only accurately detect changes in temperature but also allow the increase in monitoring frequency when required.Surface water samplingUAVs provide unique opportunities for remote sample collection from surface waters, particularly in harsh or dangerous environments. Using a surface water sampling device described in the sampling and method sections we collected filtered fresh and saline surface waters at: (1) Three locations in Crater Lake (Fig. 4A). Crater Lake is part of the Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA 140) due to its exceptional botanic and ecological value3. The use of drones for water sampling avoids human disturbance through the transportation and use of infrastructure, such as inflatable boats, and the risk that they pose to the natural ecological system. (2) One and six coastal locations in the Vapour Col and Baily Head penguin colonies, respectively (Fig. 4B, C). Access to the coastal zone inhabited by penguins requires approaches by boat (often assisted by an oceanographic vessel). The approaches do not only disturb the penguins that enter and exit the colony but, due to the coastal orography and waves, also dangerously hinders such an operation. The surface water sampling device onboard the UAV allowed in-situ water collection, minimizing the risk of impact on flora and fauna, limiting water disturbance and preventing contamination in the trace metal analysis. Attached to the sampling system we included a small multiparametric instrument referenced with time and GPS position to measure ancillary parameters, such as conductivity, temperature and depth (CastAway-CTD®) (Fig. 4D). The aerial water sampling has been validated for trace metal analysis using ICP-MS by comparing metal concentrations of samples collected in a saline pond with the surface water sampling device onboard the UAV (i.e. average ± SD, n = 3; Ti: 0.20 ± 0.09; V: 1.92 ± 0.07; Cr: 1.5 ± 0.1; Mn: 19.4 ± 0.4; Fe: 11.6 ± 0.5; Cu: 1.9 ± 0.2; Zn: 0.5 ± 0.3; all values in ppb) and the traditional peristaltic pump system used from land or on boats29 (i.e. average ± SD, n = 3; Ti: 0.20 ± 0.06; V: 1.93 ± 0.09; Cr: 1.3 ± 0.1; Mn: 19.1 ± 0.3; Fe: 11.8 ± 0.3; Cu: 2.1 ± 0.4; Zn: 0.4 ± 0.3; all values in ppb).Figure 4Locations of surface water samples collected in Crater lake (A), Vapour Col (B), and Baily Head (C) using aerial water sampling device, and picture of the UAV (hexacopter) carrying, at 100 m altitude, the water sampling device and the multiparametric instrument (D). Stations at Crater lake are plotted on a mosaic composed of 3096 pictures taken during three flights of 14 min each at 120 m altitude using a quadcopter with an integrated RGB camera and a multispectral camera array with 5 bands, achieving 6.5 cm/pixel size.Full size imageDeception Island is an example of the complexity of Antarctic environments, where environmental research studies need to deal with the inter- and multi-disciplinary analysis of processes, such as volcanic and geothermal activities, limnological process from its multiple lakes and ponds, sparse and exceptional flora and diverse fauna, among other. UAV surveys on Deception Island have demonstrated that this technology may substantially contribute to the progress in environmental biological, geological and chemical studies. UAVs permit researchers to study environmental processes at smaller spatial and temporal scales compared to other remote platforms (e.g. satellites), in a more cost-effective and safer way than on foot studies. Furthermore, they are less invasive and less disturbing to wildlife and the ecosystem. The simultaneous use of multi-sensors for multiple applications and the development of algorithms based on images obtained from the drone to detect, classify and count animals in real time are the new challenges that would significantly contribute to the study of the functioning of the Antarctic ecosystem and its ongoing environmental processes. More

One of the striking features of the Anthropocene is a rapid degradation of natural ecosystems1,2, and an alarming decline of many species, which ultimately may lead to extinctions3,4,5. Whereas conserving ecosystem functions is increasingly recognised as a vital need for humans6,7,8, the interspecific interactions underpinning these functions are poorly understood9,10. However, conserving such interactions can be particularly important when taxa providing high-value ecosystem services are involved10,11.Ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) have been long known for their benefits in agroecosystems12,13. They play an important role in suppressing pests14, but several carabid species also consume seeds of herbaceous plants, making them a valuable asset for weed control as well15.Fungi are also of vital significance in most of the world’s terrestrial ecosystems16. Mycorrhizal fungi improve nutrient uptake by a large range of plant species through intimate and specialised associations17, other fungi play a crucial role in decomposition18, and yet others are pathogens of both crops and pests in agroecosystems19. Fungal parasitism is one of the crucial agents of evolution20.Fungi and carabids often co-occur, and they can potentially interact in many ways. The soil environment carabids often inhabit is a reservoir of fungal propagules where the beetles can feed on spores, hyphae or fruiting bodies21. They may also be responsible for dispersal of spores of certain fungi22. Several parasitic or entomopathogenic fungi are in an obligatory relationship with their beetle hosts23, therefore, the population decline of a ground beetle species could potentially lead to overlooked extinction cascades24. However, our knowledge of the fungal-carabid interactions is still limited concerning the frequency of these interactions and on how their exact nature affect the parties involved. Indeed, we do not even have a catalogue of the carabid-fungi interactions, and they have not yet been organized into a comprehensive database. Such a database would be of particular importance from an integrated pest management point of view because both fungi and carabids can deliver ecosystem services, but how their interactions, and potential synergies or antagonisms, influence the delivery of these services is poorly understood.In order to have a detailed overview of the interactions between Carabidae and the fungal kingdom, we collated a database containing previously reported associations between these taxa. Carabid and fungal species involved in the interaction, the type of the interaction (e. g. parasitic, pathogenic, mutualistic, or trophic interactions), the location (country) the interaction was reported from, and the publication source combined with detailed notes to each questionable entry comprised one record. Publications available in printed formats only were either digitized and data were extracted using semi-automatic text-mining processes, or they were manually screened. We aimed at possible completeness, using a wide range of databases and search engines and several languages to cover most of the published literature.Both ground beetle and fungal names were validated and their higher taxonomical classifications were also extracted. When it was possible, historical localities were converted to their current country names. The full bibliographical details were also stored in the database.The database covers a time-period from 1793 to 2020, spans over all geographic sub-regions defined by the United Nations (“UNSD — Methodology”, unstats.un.org. Retrieved 2020–10–11) with recorded associations from 129 countries. Our effort yielded 3,378 unique associations in 5,564 records between 1,776 carabid and 676 fungal species. Although rapidly developing molecular methods have largely facilitated the mapping of complex interaction networks in ecological studies25,26,27, due to the historic nature of our dataset, most of the records rely on traditional taxonomical identification. Yet, 16 records were based purely on metabarcoding studies; comments linked to these associations clearly identify them.Whilst we found relatively few pathogenic interactions, a great diversity between ectoparasitic Laboulbeniales fungi and carabids was revealed (Fig. 1). Soft bodied, cave-dwelling members of the Trechinae subfamily were particularly prone to these parasitic infections. Little information was available on mutualistic relationships but the presence of Yarrowia yeast reported from the gut of several carabid species28 is probably beneficial for both parties. The data show two distinct peaks in publications registering new associations, in the early 19th century and in the late 20th century (Fig. 2a) but the steady increase in the cumulative number of associations (Fig. 2b) suggests that further research is required to fully resolve this association network. Although we believe that most of the data published so far were collected, data submission will remain open to researchers wishing to contribute.Fig. 1The number of unique associations between Carabidae subfamilies and fungal classes. Side bar plots show the number of species in each subfamily/class recorded in our dataset.Full size imageFig. 2The number of recorded unique associations over time. Changes in the number of new records (a) and in the cumulative number (b) per year. Dark green lines indicate smoothed trends.Full size image More

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