Ecology

Owing to drastic changes in the environment caused by human interference, wild mammals that are reservoirs of Leishmania have invaded residential areas where species of sand flies with eclectic feeding habits are found, and established a transmission cycle that eventually reaches humans23,24,25. In the study area, it was observed that the largest frequency of specimens over the years was captured in the residential environment, which are represented by residential and peridomicile areas. The lowest frequency was captured in the borders of the forest.The municipality of Paraty, located on the southern coast in the state of Rio de Janeiro, where the study was conducted, has many preserved areas of the Atlantic Forest and its climate is wet with no dry season13, which was confirmed during the three years of the present study, where the relative air humidity stayed high every month. The highest average rainfalls occur in summer and fall (autumn). The average temperature during the hottest months of the year was between approximately 25 °C and 26 °C, with a maximum of 31 °C, and in the coldest months, the temperature averaged between 20 and 21 °C, with a minimum of 16 °C, exhibiting an ideal environment for the activity of sand flies throughout the year.Barretto26 noted that atmospheric conditions, such as relative humidity, rainfall, and temperature directly influence the activity of these sand fly species. Migonemyia migonei and Ny. whitmani had lower activity at temperatures below 15 °C, Pi. fischeri below 10 °C, and Ny. intermedia at temperatures below 9.5 °C. The author also reported that heavy rains prevent sand flies from leaving their shelters; however, this can increase their density within residences, especially for species located next to residential areas. Light rain will not impede their activity, but in these conditions, they are not as frequently observed as they usually are. However, during rain periods, especially in the hot and humid summer period, the density of sand flies increases considerably.In the present study, four key vector species of Leishmania braziliensis Vianna, 1911, the etiologic agent of tegumentary leishmaniasis, were captured throughout the year. The most frequent was Ny. intermedia, followed by Pi. fischeri, Mg. migonei, and Ny. whitmani. Carvalho et al.27, in the State of Pernambuco, northeast region of Brazil, reported having found Mg. migonei infected with Leishmania infantum Nicolle, 1908, the etiologic agent of visceral leishmaniasis.According to Forattini28, there are sand fly species that are essentially resistant to climate changes throughout the seasons. Several are found, albeit in lower densities, during the cooler, dry months, while others disappear during this period. However, other factors also influence the incidence of sand flies in the same location, even under the same temperature and humidity conditions. Thus, to study the seasonality of sand fly species, it is important to perform systematized captures, for a period exceeding two years, to minimize the effects of these additional factors, for example, atypical years with a longer period of drought or humidity, more or less high temperatures, months with higher than expected rainfall or control measures applied by the municipality.In studies carried out in the Northeast region of Brazil, in a study carried out in the municipality of Codó, in the State of Maranhão, an inversely proportional correlation of the captured sandflies was observed in relation to relative air humidity, a direct correlation in relation to temperature and precipitation, a correlation directly proportional29. In the municipality of Sobral, State of Ceará, in the first year of the study, observed a negative correlation with temperature and a high positive correlation with humidity and precipitation, however, in the following year, there was no correlation between the density of captured sandflies and climatic variables30. The same occurred in this study, in the municipality of Paraty, in relation to relative air humidity and precipitation, but in relation to temperature, a strong positive correlation was obtained.In the studied area Ny. intermedia occurred in greater numbers in every month of the year, except in June and July, when it was less frequent than Pi. fischeri. The same pattern was observed for these two species, i.e., a gradual increase in abundance beginning in August, peak abundance in summer (January), followed by a decrease until winter (July). Brito et al.31, when researching the northern coast of the state of São Paulo, municipality of São Sebastião, noted the opposite, that Ny. intermedia had the highest abundance peaks during the driest and coldest period of the year, i.e., from May to August. However, the authors also emphasized the presence of this species throughout the year, mainly in the residential environment, and they stressed the importance of seasonal analyses for periods longer than a year.In the São Francisco River region, in the state of Minas Gerais, on the banks of the Rio Velhas, Saraiva et al.32, in a study over a two-year period, observed a different pattern. In the first year of study, after the rainy season from February to May, with high humidity and high temperature, Ny. intermedia was captured in greater numbers than during other months of the year. In the second year, peaks occurred in October, March, and June, with the highest peak in March, when there was elevated rainfall, high humidity, and high temperatures.In the state of Rio de Janeiro, in Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Aguiar and Soucasaux33 analyzed the monthly frequency in human bait and observed that Ny. fischeri was captured in every month except November. In the hot and humid period, from December to February, there was a gradual increase in the average abundances of this species, and then a slight decrease began in March and continued into April. During the cold and dry period of May and June, abundances started to increase, then decreased in July, and peaked in August. During August, Pi. fischeri was the dominant species of wildlife, and in September, abundances began to decline again.Mayo et al.34, studying the southeastern region of the state of São Paulo, observed that there was a seasonal trend in the abundance for species Mg. migonei, Ny. whitmani, Ny. intermedia, and Pi. fischeri, with abundance peaks recorded during the cooler, drier season (April to September) and low abundances during the warmer, wetter season (October to March). The authors revealed that the occurrence of intense fires in the study area in October, which caused severe environmental change, possibly interfered with the population dynamics of the species. In the present study, the opposite trend of seasonality was shown for the four key species, Ny. intermedia, Pi. fischeri, Mg. migonei, and Ny. whitmani, then what was observed by the above authors, the highest abundances occurred during the hottest period, increasing gradually until a maximum peak in January, and lowest abundances were seen during the coldest period, in July for the first three species, and in June for Ny. whitmani.In the neighboring municipality of this study in Angra dos Reis, in the Ilha Grande, Carvalho et al.35 reinforced the epidemiological importance of Ny. intermedia in the State of Rio de Janeiro and highlighted the role of Mg. migonei in the transmission of cutaneous leishmaniasis with its high rate of infection natural by Leishmania. Still in the same region, along the southern coast of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Aguiar et al.8 conducted systematic catches for two years, with the aim being to analyze the monthly frequency of sand flies in residential and forest environments. The authors discovered results like what occurred in this study in Paraty, that the four most important species caught, Ny. intermedia, Pi. fischeri, Mg. migonei, and Ny. whitmani, had higher average numbers during the hot and humid period of the year, i.e., between October and January, with a maximum peak in December for Ny. intermedia and Pi. fischeri, and January for Mg. migonei. The prevalence of Ny. intermedia was evident in every month, both inside the residence and around the residential area. In the colder and drier season, from May to August, there was a balance with Pi. fischeri, but from August, inside the residence, and from September, around the residence, the frequency increased until it reached its peak in December. There was a gradual increase in the frequency of this species in the warmer and wetter period (between October and January), with average temperatures ranging from 26 to 29 °C and relative air humidity between 84 and 87%.Condino et al.36, when studying the southwestern region of the state of São Paulo, observed that Ny. intermedia and Ny. whitmani had the highest frequencies during the months of May, September, and December with temperatures ranging from 21 to 25.7 °C and rainfall between 66.7 and 195.1 mm. In June, the lowest frequency of sand flies was observed, which then increased until a maximum peak in September. Temperature data and rainfall index were not correlated with the density of specimens, especially as the study was carried out over only one year. In this study, the opposite was observed for Ny. intermedia and Ny. whitmani in the month of May, one of the months with the lowest density.In the city of Petrópolis, state of Rio de Janeiro, Souza et al.24 observed a prevalence of Ny. intermedia and Ny. whitmani, with the latter species prevailing around the residence. Migonemyia migonei and Pi. fischeri were also present but to a lesser extent. In the forest, Ny. whitmani was more abundant, followed by Pi. fischeri, while Ny. intermedia was found at lower abundances. However, Ny. intermedia and Pi. fischeri were present during every month of the year. The authors also found a significant correlation between the number of sand flies and environmental changes such as temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall. The same was observed, in this study, in the forest with Ny. intermedia, however, in this environment the number of Pi. fischeri specimens was higher than that of Ny. whitmani.In the north of Espírito Santo, Virgens et al.37 observed that Ny. intermedia was present in almost every month of the study period, with peaks in the warmer and wetter months. The authors highlighted that the low numbers of this species were recorded during and after high rainfall periods, suggesting that heavy rain is unfavorable for the development of immature forms, as breeding sites in altered habitats suffered a greater impact because of extreme weather conditions.In a study carried out by Guimarães et al.38 to observe the competence of Mg. Migonei to Leishmania infantum, concluded that this species is highly susceptible to the development of this parasite and that in addition to its anthropophilia and abundance in areas with an active focus of visceral leishmaniasis, it can act as a vector of this disease in Latin America.In the studied area, Ny. intermedia, one of the main vectors of the etiological agent of tegumentary leishmaniasis in the region2, was present in significant numbers in the home environment throughout all months of the year. The species Pi. fischeri was present over the months in expressive numbers in all types and locations of capture, that is, both in the environment altered by human activity and in the natural environment where leishmaniasis occurs in its natural enzootic cycle. Migonemyia migonei, present throughout the year in the peridomestic environment, showed its association with the dog, where it was prevalent throughout the year in the kennel, being an important vector of the etiological agent of tegumentary leishmaniasis, as well as being suspected in areas of visceral leishmaniasis transmission, where the main vector of this disease is not found. And Ny. whitmani present in the peridomicile, mainly in the hottest months of the year, in addition to the forest and forest margins, it was observed that in this study region the species is emerging through a selective process of adaptation in environments that were negatively affected by the increase of human activity. Thus, despite observing a period of greater frequency of sand flies in the hottest months of the year, a period with high rainfall, the high relative humidity is observed throughout the year, as well as the presence of species of epidemiological importance Ny. intermedia, Pi. fischeri, Mg. migonei and Ny. whitmani, who are involved in the propagation of the etiological agent of tegumentary leishmaniasis to humans and animals, causing greater contact between the region’s inhabitants with these dipterans and thus, a greater risk of contracting the disease. More

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Terraces are a land type that is defined by its shape. They have a distinct morphological structure and edge features that distinguish them from other land types. In this study, we define terraces as agricultural land with strip or wavy sections built on slopes greater than 2° along the contour direction. Figure 1 depicts Google Maps satellite images of terraces in the Loess Plateau region. Terraces can be distinguished from other features in remote sensing images based on their colour, morphology, texture, and structure. Terraces can be distinguished from construction land, water, glaciers, and deserts by their colours. Figure 1b–d shows terraces that are primarily green and yellow. Furthermore, terraces are generally distributed along the contour direction, and can therefore be identified based on their morphology. Terraced field ridges curve downward and resemble strips in Fig. 1b,d or circles or ovals in Fig. 1c rather than a neat grid-like distribution. These features differ in morphology from the flat land shown in Fig. 1h. Based on texture and structure, the field area of terraces can be identified based on their strong edge features, as shown in Fig. 1b–d. The edges of terraces have dark stripes caused by oblique illumination received from the sun, and the field ridge of terraces often intercepts part of the sunlight due to their height. Sloping cultivated land, as shown in Fig. 1g, has no evident terraced wall. The outline of sloping cultivated land in the high-resolution image is curved, with no prominent edge features. These findings are critical differences distinguishing terraces and sloping land in high-resolution images.Fig. 1The spatial location of the Loess Plateau and images of various types of cultivated land. (a) The spatial location of the Loess Plateau and Spatial distribution of various cultivated land types images, (b) wide strip-mounted terraces in Longxi, (c) circular wide terraces in central Yulin, (d) high resolution image of Zhuanglang County in July 2019, (e) Zhuanglang County in February 2020, (f) narrow terraces in Shangbao, Chongyi, Jiangxi Province, (g) sloping cropland in Zhenjiang Town, Laibin, Guangxi, and (h) horizontal cropland in the North China Plain.Full size imageDeep learning-based terrace extraction modelThe DLTEM is a terrace extraction model that uses deep learning algorithms and other supplementary information. Initially, a preliminary terrace distribution map was obtained using a deep learning algorithm. It was then combined with the spectral and digital elevation model (DEM) elevation information to fine-tune the results. The final spatial distribution of the terraces was produced by manual correction (Fig. 2). Traditional land classification models or methods typically superimpose spectral, elevation, and morphological texture information from remote sensing images together for training, such as random forest, which is easily ignored in training since morphological texture information accounts for a relatively small amount of the total information. This leads to significant errors while identifying land classes with textural characteristics. In contrast, the DLTEM focuses on morphological texture information from remote sensing images and classifies it into land classes, followed by auxiliary correction through additional information. Thus, this method is more suitable to extract terraces enriched with texture structure information.Fig. 2Flow chart of the deep learning-based terrace extraction model.Full size imageThe UNet++ network is a classic deep learning algorithm that is uniquely unrivaled in extracting colour, morphology, texture, and structure features from images and applying them for classification. In comparison with other Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) classification models (e.g., Fully Convolutional Networks (FCN)), it has high classification accuracy, fast computation speed, strong robustness, and provides variable importance metrics. Therefore, in this study, the UNet++ network was adopted as the network framework for deep learning; the primary data source used was high-resolution satellite imagery from 2019. DEM (SRTM v4.1) data were used to obtain the elevation information and GlobeLand30 data were used to obtain the spectral information. The results were corrected to construct the final map of the distribution of terraces in the Loess Plateau.Study areaThe Loess Plateau, one of China’s four major plateaus, is located in northern central China (34°–40° N and 103°–114° E) (Fig. 1). It is covered by a thick loess layer that ranges in thickness from 50 to 80 m, and is the world’s largest loess deposition area, covering 648,700 km2. The altitude of the Loess Plateau ranges from 800 to 3,000 m, its average annual temperature is 6–14 °C, and its average annual precipitation is 200–700 mm. Since ancient times, the Loess Plateau has been used for agriculture because of its fine grains, fluffy soil texture, and rich soluble mineral nutrients, all of which are conducive to crop cultivation. However, long-term unsustainable land use caused the degradation of the vegetation cover in the Loess Plateau. Moreover, the land is degrading due to considerable nutrient loss caused by long-term water erosion in conjunction with natural conditions, such as arid climate, loose soil, concentrated and heavy rainfall. The fragmented ground in the region has made it susceptible to soil erosion. It has also become the primary source of Yellow River sediment as a result of the massive flow of eroded sediment into the Yellow River, posing a serious threat to the economic and social development of the lower Yellow River basin.Terracing is one of the main measures used to enhance crop yield and conserve soil and water in the region. Since the 1980s, the Chinese government has implemented many large-scale slope-to-terrace projects in the Loess Plateau. Especially in recent years, the outline of the comprehensive management plan for the Loess Plateau area (2010–2030) has been promulgated with a planned area of 2.608 million hectares for slope to terrace conversion, making it the core area of slope to terrace conversion projects in the country.Data preparationAlthough high-resolution satellite images can be an important data source for the spatial distribution of terraces on the Loess Plateau, they are not ideal for terraces classification. On the one hand, a higher resolution image requires more storage space. On the other hand, it reduces the efficiency, prolongs the interpretation time, and increases the noise in the image, affecting the interpretation accuracy. Most of the terraces on the Loess Plateau are wider than 7 m (Fig. 1b–d). These are wide terraces in comparison with the narrow terraces of southern China (Fig. 1f), which are less than 2 m wide. Furthermore, it is also easy to mistake the fish-scale pits constructed for soil and water conservation for terraces because of their similarity in form. However, as the width of their field surface is less than 1.5 m, remote sensing images with a 2 m resolution can effectively prevent the false extraction of such features. Based on the actual situation of this study area, we chose a high-resolution image with a spatial resolution of 1.89 m from Google Maps 16 level as the data source. The colour, texture, and morphological features of terraces in the images show seasonal variations. In autumn and winter, the weather is dry, and the vegetation is less shaded in the Loess Plateau. During this time, even the edge features become more visible and easier to identify. As a result, we selected images from October 2018 to February 2019 whenever possible (Fig. 1c,d).Deep learning network selectionLand classification is the extraction of land types from remote sensing images using image segmentation techniques. As the key technology of image segmentation, the Fully Convolutional Network (FCN) classifies images at the pixel level. FCN follows the network structure pattern of encoding and decoding, which adopts AlexNet as the encoder of the network and then employs transposed convolution to up-sample the feature map output from the final convolutional layer of the encoder to the resolution of the input image to achieve pixel-level image segmentation. However, due to the large error in image pixel boundary localization, Ronneberger et al.29 improved the FCN structure in 2015 by expanding the capacity of the network decoder by adding a contracting path to the encoding and decoding modules to achieve more accurate pixel boundary localisation29. The U-Net network is commonly used in medical image processing because it requires a small number of training samples and is effective in classifying objects with a fixed structure and limited semantic information. This network is comparable to natural image semantic segmentation such as Deeplab v3+, which has a smaller number of model parameters and the same effect.Since the texture and morphological features of terraces and human organs have certain similarities, they are primarily manifested by simple semantic information contained within the terrace images themselves. Thus, high-level semantic information and low-level features of such images become more important. However, high-resolution images are more complicated and variable than medical image patterns, and errors in terrace extraction edge identification using the U-Net network, such as boundary segmentation of terraces and flatlands, still occur. To fully utilize the semantic information of the network, we adopted a nested U-Net architecture, namely the UNet++ network proposed by Zhou et al.28. The network integrates long-connected and short-connected architectures to capture features at different levels by adding a shallower U-Net structure and integrates them via feature superposition to make the scale difference of feature maps smaller when fused to enhance the correct rate of image segmentation edges. However, because the U-Net++ network increases the number of model parameters, this study adopted the sparse matrix approach to accelerate model training and decrease the number of parameters.Data pre-processingData pre-processing is a prerequisite for UNet++ network training, that is, valid input according to the standard format annotation before training can be performed. Since the UNet++ network proposed by Zhou et al.28. is primarily used for medical images, which have characteristics such as fixed image structure, no spatial information, and less pattern variation, labelling medical images is comparatively easier using this method. In contrast, high-resolution remote sensing images have a large number of rasters, many pattern changes, irregular image structure, and spatial information. Therefore, determining how to better annotate high-resolution remote sensing images and reduce the annotation workload becomes critical. First, we vectorized the training sample area and generated the terrace vector dataset using ArcGIS with a high-resolution remote sensing image as the primitive map. Second, we converted the terrace vector dataset into raster data. The information of the raster had to be identical to that of the primitive map, including the size of the raster, its processing range, and its coordinate system. The output was converted to TIFF format to complete the image annotation. Since the raster size input to UNet++ network training is a fixed size, it is much smaller than the original image. To simplify the process of inputting the original image and its annotation information, we added an image import module to DLTEM, which was a sliding window of 400*400, and read the image automatically by setting the corresponding judgement conditions. Finally, the entire high-resolution image was processed automatically into the model in accordance with the established rules for training.The goal of the data enhancement was to improve the universality and robustness of the UNet++ network training results. As mentioned above, the high-resolution images taken simultaneously often included clouds or other anomalies in some areas, as the images were stitched together using multiple sources of data fusion. This can easily form evident stitching traces (Fig. 1c,d) due to the different shooting times and image quality of various data sources, i.e., brightness, saturation, and colour contrast of the images. Thus, the model trained on the original image data has strong limitations, and in many scenes, there are notable matrix-type misclassification regions due to image differences, making extraction work challenging. Therefore, in this study, we first adjusted the brightness, grayscale, and contrast of the training data after input to enhance its colour feature recognition ability. We then altered the scaling of the image, and rotated and transformed the training image from 0° to 360° to enhance morphological feature recognition and the accuracy of the training network in terrace extraction.Parameter settingThe network parameter setting is the most critical hyperparameter for UNet++ network training. They are mainly divided into input image size, batch size, learning rate, number of iterations, objective function, gradient descent strategy, momentum, decay rate, and activation function. Among them, we set the image size to 400*400 pixels based on the actual situation of the terraced area, where the UNet++ network has four scaling times, and the image size must be a multiple of 16. The batch size primarily affects the convergence of the model. If the batch limit is set to one, the model is easily affected by the random perturbation phenomenon and cannot converge to find the optimal solution. Since the batch size is determined by the size of the video memory, the value of the batch is limited by equipment constraints. The model in this study used a 2080Ti video card with 11 GB of video memory, and the batch was set to 8. The learning rate, gradient descent strategy, and objective function play a role in whether the network can find the best classification model better and faster. The learning rate was set to 0.001 for the first 500 generations, with the goal of achieving fast convergence to the target region. The learning rate was then set to 0.0001 for 500–1,000 generations, and the model was fine-tuned by choosing a smaller learning rate to find the model with the highest classification accuracy. Adam was chosen for the gradient descent strategy. The momentum and adaptive learning rate were used to increase the convergence rate. The cross-entropy classification loss function was chosen as the objective function to improve the differentiation between terraced and non-terraced areas. Momentum, decay rate, and activation function were all adopted from the previous default settings of the UNet++ network.Data correctionIn this study, we primarily used high-resolution images from Google Earth as the data source to extract the distribution of terraces on the Loess Plateau. Because this image source only contains a large amount of texture structure information and no vegetation information, it is easy to misjudge and misclassify features with the same morphological structure and edge features, such as permanent snow and ice, water bodies, bare land, and artificial surfaces. Vegetation information was generally processed based on waveband data from multispectral/hyperspectral images. It requires topographic correction, atmospheric correction, radiometric calibration, de-clouding, and other operational processes, which are extremely sophisticated30.GlobeLand30 is a 30 m spatial resolution global surface coverage dataset developed by the National Geomatics Center of China. The most recent GlobeLand30 dataset (v2020) has been updated with data sources from 2017 to the present. Its extensive data sources enable effective reduction of the impacts of cloud cover, with an overall accuracy of 85.72%. The classification accuracy of permanent snow and ice, water bodies, bare land, and artificial surfaces of this dataset is as high as 75.79%, 84.70%, 81.76%, and 86.70%, respectively. Since the update time of v2020 data is similar to that of high-resolution images, it can be used as correction data for vegetation information31.Since the training image data are two-dimensional planar data with no elevation or slope information (Fig. 1g), certain flat fields with visible field bumps are easily misclassified as terraces. The Space Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM v4.1) DEM has a spatial resolution of 30 m and ranges from 60° N to 56° S, completely covering the Loess Plateau32,33. In this study, these data were treated as terrain correction data. The amendment standard corrects the areas that have been extracted as terraces below 2° to non-terraced areas according to the requirements of the Ministry of Natural Resources of China.The spatial resolution of our extracted terraces is 1.89 m, whereas the spatial resolution of GlobeLand30 and DEM as correction data sources is 30 m, which is difficult to meet the requirements of data processing. Hence, we up-sample the two correction data sources, and then used multi-source data fusion. First, we extracted and up-sampled the terraced areas of glaciers, rivers, and deserts from GlobeLand30 to a spatial resolution of 1.89 m. Secondly, we up-sampled the DEM to 1.89 m using spatial interpolation for its raster centre as the true value of the region and performed a slope calculation for the up-sampled DEM. Further, the spatial distribution maps of glaciers, rivers, deserts, and slope maps of the Loess Plateau with the same resolution as the spatial distribution maps of terraces were available. Finally, we superimposed these images, used the terrace range in the TDMLP as a mask, and assessed the pixels in the mask area one by one. If a pixel belonged to permanent snow and ice, a water body, bare land, or an artificial surface, or had a slope less than 2°, it was modified to the background value. Otherwise, the original value was retained.We made artificial corrections to the data based on the extracted results for the arid areas of the Loess Plateau as well as for the flatter basins, given that these areas do not feature terraces.Training and validation dataFor supervised classification, the selection of sample areas and sample features is crucial. The focus and core of any land classification work is representative and effective training sample selection. To obtain a better sample area selection, we considered the selection of sample areas from three perspectives, i.e., colour texture features, topographic features, and spatial distance of the training samples. First, the terraces in this study are in agricultural land, including cultivated land, woodland, grassland, and other types of land; thus, different types of land will present different texture details. At the same time, high-resolution images from Google Earth are mosaicked. Because of the different acquisition times, the same region and land type will have visible colour differences and stitching traces, which is more common in the Loess Plateau region. Therefore, these factors should be considered in the selection of training samples as much as possible to improve the generability of the model and the correct rate of its extraction. Second, the state of the terraces varies according to topographic features. Among them, gradient, direction, altitude, and climate are the most significant factors. Terraces can be categorised as shallow-slope or steep-slope terraces. Based on slope aspect, altitude, and climate characteristics, they can also be categorised as either easy to identify or hard to identify. Thus, the sample should be inclusive of these types of terraces. According to the first law of geography, terraces in different spatial locations have different morphologies. Therefore, the spatial location of the samples should also be at a certain distance.In summary, we selected one county in each region based on the geomorphic zoning characteristics of the Loess Plateau. In addition, we added one more in the area where the density of terraces may be higher. Finally, we selected the whole area of seven counties (Fig. 3) as the training sample area distribution, covering 2.18% of the overall Loess Plateau area. The colour morphological features, topographic features, spatial location, and imaging quality of terrace images in these regions are highly representative. This method was unique from other classification methods. Most of the traditional methods are based on the single-pixel information of feature layers such as random forests, which tend to ignore the neighbouring information around the point, and thus are subject to misclassification and under classification for land types with outstanding texture information. In our study, we adopted the visual interpretation of the whole domain, which can cover the neighbourhood information of each pixel point more comprehensively. To ensure the uniformity and correctness of visual interpretation, the terraces in the training area were visually interpreted by seven interpreters after uniform professional training. For the disputed and uncertain areas, the seven interpreters carried out interactive interpretation and scoring according to the interpretation results. Finally, two other interpretation experts made the final review and corrections. The interpretation results of the training area were re-examined and revised based on the results of the later interpretations.Fig. 3Distribution of training sample areas and validation sites in terraces on the Loess Plateau.Full size imageTo better assess and compare the validity and correctness of the terraced agricultural area datasets on the Loess Plateau in quantitatively, the validation dataset was divided into two parts: a per-pixel point-based validation set and a field validation dataset of terraces with location information. The extracted datasets were comprehensively evaluated in terms of both pixel scale and field validation.We constructed a single-pixel validation point that evaluates the TDMLP. We applied the Icosahedral Snyder Equal Area Discrete Global Grid created by ArcGIS. Based on this strategy, the study area was partitioned into 972 regions (Fig. 3). To better validate the terrace classification results (excluding non-terrace classes), we placed more validation points within the grid where the terrace distribution is more concentrated. First, we calculated the proportion of terraces in each hexagonal grid to the total area of the hexagonal grid. Second, we separated the terraces into four levels according to the proportion of terraces to the whole grid area as 0–20%, 20–50%, 50–80%, and 80–100% and the number of validation points was 10, 20, 40, and 50, respectively.Since the proportion of the extracted terraced area to the total area was only 14%, direct random point deployment would have led to fewer terraced validation sets and thus would have affected the final data evaluation. Therefore, in the deployment strategy, we ensured that the validation points distributed in the extracted terraces in each grid account for at least one-fifth of the total number of validation points, but for the grid with a smaller proportion of terraces or even 0, this practice was meaningless. Hence, we stipulated that in the grid with a proportion of terraces ≤1%, direct random scattering was to be performed. The final scattered verification points in the terraced and non-terraced areas were 5,194 and 6,226, respectively, with a ratio close to 1:1 for easy verification. The spatial distribution is shown in Fig. 3.We validated the spatial distribution map of terraces on the Loess Plateau from 14 April 2021 to 1 May 2021 and constructed a field validation dataset of terraces with location information. Considering the longitudinal, latitudinal, and vertical heterogeneities of the Loess Plateau, the verification route was divided into two sections, north to south and east to west, to more comprehensively cover all regions of the Loess Plateau. The verification route started at Hohhot in the northeast of the Loess Plateau. It passed through the Datong Basin, followed the Yellow River to the south and the Weihe Plain, and then travelled westward through Mount Liupan to the westernmost part of the Loess Plateau. The route was through 54 counties/districts in 16 cities and six provinces on the Loess Plateau, with a total distance of 3,680 km, covering 15.8% of the counties on the Loess Plateau (total of 341 counties). We also surveyed and sampled the verification points approximately every 5 km along the route and collected data from a total of 815 sample points, covering various types of terraces on the Loess Plateau. The results are shown in Fig. 3. More

A hippo swims in Colombia’s Magdalena River, near where Pablo Escobar’s compound was located.Credit: Fernando Vergara/AP/Shutterstock

Colombian environment minister Susana Muhamad has triggered fear among researchers that she will protect, rather than reduce, a growing population of invasive hippos that threaten the country’s natural ecosystems and biodiversity. Although she did not directly mention the hippos — a contentious issue in Colombia — Muhamad said during a speech in late January that her ministry would create policies that prioritize animal well-being, including the creation of a new division of animal protection.
Landmark Colombian bird study repeated to right colonial-era wrongs
The hippos escaped from drug-cartel leader Pablo Escobar’s estate after he died in 1993. Left alone, the male and three females that Escobar had illegally imported from a US zoo established themselves in Colombia’s Magdalena River and some small lakes nearby — part of the country’s main watershed. After years of breeding, the ‘cocaine hippos’ have multiplied to about 150 individuals, scientists estimate.Given that the hippos (Hippopotamus amphibius) — considered the largest invasive animal in the world — have no natural predators in Colombia and have been mating at a steady rate, their population could reach 1,500 in 16 years, according to a modelling study published in 20211. “I do not understand what the government is waiting for to act,” says Nataly Castelblanco Martínez, a Colombian conservation biologist at the Autonomous University of Quintana Roo in Chetumal, Mexico, and co-author of the study. “If we don’t do anything, 20 years from now the problem will have no solution.”Researchers have called for a strict management plan that would eventually reduce the wild population to zero, through a combination of culling some animals and capturing others, then relocating them to facilities such as zoos. But the subject of what to do with the hippos has polarized the country, with some enamoured by the animals’ charisma and value as a tourist attraction and others concerned about the threat they pose to the environment and local fishing communities.‘A bit surreal’Several studies and observations suggest how destructive it could be to allow the Colombian hippo population to explode. A 2019 paper2, for example, showed that, compared with lakes without hippos, those where the animals have taken up residence contain more nutrients and organic matter that favour the growth of cyanobacteria — aquatic microbes associated with toxic algal blooms. These blooms can reduce water quality and cause mass fish deaths, affecting local fishing communities.

A sign near Doradal, Colombia, warns passersby of the danger of invasive hippos.Credit: Juancho Torres/Anadolu Agency via Getty

Other scientists have predicted that the hippos could displace endangered species that are native to the Magdalena River, such as the Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus), by outcompeting them for food and space. They caution that traffic accidents and attacks on people caused by the hippos will become more common. And they warn that wildlife traffickers are already taking advantage of the situation by illegally selling baby hippos — a trend that could intensify.“It’s a bit surreal,” says Jorge Moreno Bernal, a vertebrate palaeontologist at the University of the North in Barranquilla, Colombia. “This is just a taste of what may come.”When Colombian authorities first recognized the speed at which the hippo population was growing, during the 2000s, they acted to reduce their numbers. But in 2009, when photos appeared online after soldiers gunned down Pepe, Escobar’s fugitive male hippo, the outcry from animal-rights activists and others plunged the environment ministry into an “institutional paralysis”, says Sebastián Restrepo Calle, an ecologist at Javeriana University in Bogotá.Researchers say that the hippos don’t belong in Colombia — they are native to sub-Saharan Africa. Simulations run by Castelblanco Martínez and her colleagues suggest that to reduce the population to zero by 2033, about 30 hippos would need to be removed from the wild population per year1. No other course of action, including sterilization or castration, would eradicate them, according to the modelling of various management scenarios, says Castelblanco Martínez.The cost of inactionThe worry now is that, instead of basing decisions on evidence and expertise in conservation, the government is listening to popular opinion, says Restrepo Calle. Neither Muhamad nor representatives of the environment ministry replied to Nature’s requests for comment.
Ancient stone tools suggest early humans dined on hippo
“Why prioritize one species over our own ecosystems?” — especially a species that isn’t native, asks Alejandra Echeverri, a Colombian conservation scientist at Stanford University in California. Along with her colleagues, Echeverri published a study last month showing that Colombia has few policies governing invasive species compared with its overall number of biodiversity policies3.Animals-rights advocates, meanwhile, argue that they aren’t ignoring environmental concerns. Luis Domingo Gómez Maldonado, an animal-rights activist and specialist in animal law at Saint Thomas University in Bogotá, says “It’s not about saving the hippos on a whim,” but rather about solving the issue while also giving the hippos justice. “My indisputable position is: let’s save as many individuals as possible, let’s do it ethically.”Researchers, too, say they have the animals’ best interests at heart. “Even if [advocates] don’t see it, we care about the hippos,” Castelblanco Martínez says. “The more time that passes, the more hippos will either have to be culled, castrated or captured.”The question is whether environmental authorities will act swiftly to draft and enforce a management plan that is both ethical and effective. Should they sit on the issue for too long, Castelblanco Martínez warns, rural communities that are most affected by the hippos might take matters into their own hands.If the government doesn’t cull them, she says, people will use shotguns to do it. More

Test organisms and exposuresIn this study, we used test organisms and reagents according to the Acute Toxicity Test Method of Daphnia magna Straus(Cladocera, Crustacea); ES 04704.1b29. Daphnia magna were fostered at the National Institute of Environmental Research and were adopted. During the test, adult female Daphnia magna over two weeks of age, cultured over several generations, were transferred to a freshly prepared container the day before the test. Daphnia magna are neonates for less than 24 h after birth29. To maintain the sensitivity of the organism, young individuals less than 24 h old that reproduced the following day were used. Individuals of a similar size were selected for the test. Daphnia magna was fed YCT, which is a mixture of green algae in Chlorella sp., yeast, Cerophy II(R), and trout chow. Sufficient amounts of prey were supplied 2 h before the test to minimize the effects of prey during the test. The test medium was prepared by dissolving KCl (8 mg/L), (text {MgSO}_4) (120 mg/L), (text {CaSO}_4 cdot 2 text {H}_2 text {O} ) (120 mg/L), and (text {NaHCO}_3) (192 mg/L) in deionized water.Automatic high-throughput Daphnia magna tracking systemTo build an automatic high-throughput Daphnia magna tracking system, we equipped the system with a video analysis algorithm as well as flow cells (Fig. 1). In the tracking system, six flow cells filled with culture medium were installed in the device. Each flow cell contained 10 Daphnia magna. Subsequently, to automatically measure the state of Daphnia magna, the six flow cells were photographed at 15 frames per second using a camera (Industrial Development Systems imaging) equipped with a CMOSIS sensor capable of infrared imaging. A red light close to the infrared spectrum was placed at the back of the flow cells for uniform illumination and to minimize stress on Daphnia magna. To capture the size and movement of the Daphnia magna as accurately as possible, the camera was set to a frame rate of 15 fps and a resolution of 2048 (times ) 1088 (2.23 MB), using a 12 mm lens. The distance between the flow cell and the camera was set to 16 cm. To measure the number of mobile Daphnia magna, their lethality, and swimming inhibition automatically and simultaneously, one camera for every two cells was used to collect the status data of Daphnia magna. For assessing ecotoxicity, the video analysis system used images obtained from the six flow cells to track each Daphnia magna and estimate key statistics such as the number of mobile individuals, average distance, and radius of activity.Figure 1New automatic high-throughput video tracking system for behavioral analysis using Daphnia magna as a model organismFull size imageThe automatic high-throughput video tracking system in the ecotoxicity measuring device was designed to continuously measure the ecotoxicity of Daphnia magna (Fig. 2). Daphnia magna moves faster at high temperatures and is less active at low temperatures. Thus, a constant temperature module that can be set to an appropriate Daphnia magna habitat temperature (20 ± 2 (^{circ })C) was added to create a suitable culture environment for Daphnia magna29. Natural pseudo-light ((lambda >590) nm, 3000 k) was installed on the upper part of the detector for proper habitat light intensity (500 Lux–1000 Lux). The size of the flow cell was set as small as possible while observing the movement of the Daphnia magna. An automatic feeding system was installed so that food could be injected during the replacement cycle. The six independent multi-flow cells were designed with an automatic dilution injection module; therefore, these flow cells were diluted to six different concentrations (100%, 50%, 25%, 12.5%, 6.25%, and 0%).Figure 2Schematic representation of the automatic high-throughput video tracking systemFull size imageAutomatic tracking algorithmThe CPU used for Daphnia magna tracking was Intel i5-9300H @ 2.40 GHz, with 8 GB of memory and Windows 10 Pro 64-bit operating system. In this experiment, the algorithms were trained using 12 Daphnia magna videos and tested using an additional four Daphnia magna videos. Subsequently, the detection and tracking methods were compared. The videos, each of which had a duration of 30 s, were captured at a rate of 15 frames per second. Generally, for long-time or real-time videos, the following factors must be considered in tracking Daphnia magna: automatic binarization between the object and background, effective classification of Daphnia magna or noise, and the speed of the algorithm. Therefore, to develop an efficient tracking algorithm, we propose the following tracking process (Fig. 3A). In this process, each frame is initially converted into an image and the background is identified from the obtained video (Fig. 3B). The background is the average of the frames over the previous 20 s, and the tracking system takes 20 s to capture the first background image. The background is subtracted from the image for object detection (Fig. 3C). The objects include Daphnia magna and noise such as droplets and sediment. The difference between the background and frame images is binarized, and each area of the binarized values is regarded as an object. Conventionally, the binarized values are manually generated using specific thresholds. In this study, the images are automatically binarized using k-means clustering to select the threshold value. After binarization, several machine learning methods are used to classify the objects as Daphnia magna or noise (Fig. 3D). For a faster tracking algorithm, we use simple machine learning methods such as random forest (RF) and support vector machine (SVM). The predicted Daphnia magna are tracked using SORT24, which is a fast and highly accurate tracking algorithm (Fig. 3E). Finally, based on the tracked results, statistics for assessing ecotoxicity, such as the number of mobile individuals, average distance, and radius of activity, are estimated to evaluate the toxicity of the aquatic environment.Figure 3Automatic Daphnia magna tracking algorithm process. (A) Overview of automatic tracking algorithm process. (B) Image extraction step. (C) Background subtraction step. (D) Daphnia magna detection step. (E) Daphnia magna tracking step.Full size imagek-means clustering for automatic background subtractionMany tracking algorithms assume that the background is fixed. With fixed backgrounds, the difference between the frame and background can be used to identify objects. However, automatically selecting the precise threshold value for image pixel binarization becomes one of the key problems in identifying objects. The proposed method applies k-means clustering to the pixel values of the subtracted image30, and the center value of each calculated cluster mean is selected as the threshold value (Fig. 4). In the k-means clustering method, grouping is repeatedly performed using the distance between data points31. For binarization, two groups are formed. Let (mu _1 (t)) be the mean of pixels less than the threshold and (mu _2(t)) be the mean of pixels greater than the threshold. At first, (mu _1(t), mu _2(t)) are randomly initialized. Subsequently, each pixel is grouped into a closer mean of each group. The above steps are repeated several times until the group experiences a few changes. Finally, the threshold is calculated as an average of the two means.Figure 4Example of automatic threshold value setting for binarization between objects and background using k-means clusteringFull size imageClassification methodsObject detection based solely on the subtraction between the background and frame images may have low accuracy. As the background in the proposed process is the average value of the frame images, noise may occur. Although this noise is removed by threshold selection in binarization, using only the threshold selection is not efficient for long or real-time videos. Therefore, additional noise must be classified and removed using machine learning models, requiring the construction of a database. In the database, the obtained objects are manually labeled as noise or Daphnia magna and are called ground truth. For classification, the resized 8 (times ) 8 image of each object is stored in the database. The resized image is transformed into a feature using the Sobel edge detection algorithm32 and entered as inputs to the classification models. In this study, classification models such as RF33 SVM34 were used.RF is a model that integrates several decision tree models35. All training data are sampled with a replacement for training each decision tree model. The decision tree model is trained to split intervals of each independent variable by minimizing the gini index (Eq. 1) or entropy index (Eq. 2). The gini index and entropy index denote the impurity within the intervals.$$begin{aligned} G= & {} 1- sum _{i=1}^{c} p_i ^2 end{aligned}$$
(1)
$$begin{aligned} E= & {} – sum _{i=1}^{c} p_i log_2 p_i end{aligned}$$
(2)
where (p_i) is a probability within i-th interval, and c is the number of intervals. For better performance, the RF selects independent variables of training data randomly. This step serves to reduce the correlation of each model. If predictions of each decision tree are uncorrelated, then the variance of an integrated prediction of models is smaller than the variance of each model. RF integrates several model predictions using the voting method. An advantage of the RF method is that it avoids overfitting because the model uses the average of many predictions.SVM is a model designed to search for a hyperplane to maximize the distance, or margin, between support vectors. The hyperplane refers to the plane that divides two different groups, and the support vector represents the closest vector to the hyperplane. Let (D=({textbf{x}}_i, y_i), i=1, ldots , n, {textbf{x}}_i in {mathbb {R}}^p, y_n in { -1,1 }) be training data. Suppose that the training data are completely separated linearly by a hyperplane; then, the hyperplane is expressed as Eq. 3.$$begin{aligned} {textbf{w}}^T {textbf{x}} + b = 0, end{aligned}$$
(3)
where ({textbf{w}}) is a weight vector of the hyperplane, and b is a bias. The weight vector is updated by minimizing Eq. 4.$$begin{aligned} L = {1 over 2} {textbf{w}}^T {textbf{w}} text { subject to } y_i ({textbf{w}}^T {textbf{x}} + b) ge 1 end{aligned}$$
(4)
We can transform Eqs. 4 to  5 by using the Lagrange multiplier method.$$begin{aligned} L^* = {1 over 2} {textbf{w}}^T {textbf{w}} – sum _{i=1}^n a_i { y_i ({textbf{w}}^T x_i + {-}) – 1 }, end{aligned}$$
(5)
where (a_i) is the Lagrange multiplier. We can efficiently solve Eq. 5 using a dual form. Furthermore, Eq. 5 can be solved in a case where it is not completely separated using a slack variable and a kernel trick can be used to estimate the nonlinear hyperplane.SORT trackerSORT, one of the frameworks for solving the multiple object tracking (MOT) problem, aims to achieve efficient real-time tracking24. The SORT method framework is created by combining the estimation step and the association step. The estimation step forecasts the next position of each predicted Daphnia magna. The association step matches the forecasting position and next true position of each predicted Daphnia magna. In the estimation step, the SORT framework uses the Kalman filter to forecast the position of the predicted Daphnia magna in the next frame. The position of each predicted Daphnia magna is expressed as Eq. 6.$$begin{aligned} {textbf{x}} = [u,v,s,r,{dot{u}}, {dot{v}}, {dot{s}}]^T end{aligned}$$
(6)
where u and v are the center positions of each predicted Daphnia magna, s is the scale size of the bounding box, and r is the aspect ratio of the bounding box. ({dot{u}}), ({dot{v}}), and ({dot{s}}) are the amounts of change in each variable. In the association step, to associate the forecasting position and true position, the framework adopts the intersection-over-union (IOU)36 as the association metric. The Hungarian algorithm is loaded into the SORT framework to perform fast and efficient Daphnia magna association prediction. In this study, a mixed metric of IOU36 and Euclidean distance37 was used instead of only the IOU that is used in SORT (Eq. 7) for more efficient association.$$begin{aligned} C_{ij} = (1-lambda ) {max_d – d_{ij} over max_d} + lambda cdot IOU_{ij} end{aligned}$$
(7)
where (d_{ij}) is the Euclidean distance between the i-th predicted Daphnia magna in the before frame and the j-th predicted Daphnia magna in the next frame, and (lambda ) is the weight of (IOU_{ij}). (IOU_{ij}) is the IOU between the i-th predicted Daphnia magna in the before-frame and the j-th predicted Daphnia magna in the next frame.MetricsThe binary confusion matrix consists of true positive (TP), true negative (TN), false positive (FP), and false negative (FN)38. TP is the number of cases where the predicted Daphnia magna matches the actual Daphnia magna, TN is the number of cases where the objects predicted as noise are actual noise, FP is the number of cases where the predicted Daphnia magna differs from the actual Daphnia magna, and FN is the number of cases where the objects predicted as noise are not actual noise. In this study, accuracy, recall, precision, and F1 scores (Eq. 8) were used as the metrics for comparing the machine learning methods.$$begin{aligned} begin{aligned} Accuracy&= {TP + FP over TP + TN + FP + FN} \ Recall&= {TP over TP + TN} \ Precision&= {TP over TP + FP} \ F1 score&= 2 times {Precision times Recall over Precision + Recall} end{aligned} end{aligned}$$
(8)
Standard MOT metrics to evaluate tracking performance include multi-object tracking accuracy (MOTA) and multi-object tracking precision (MOTP). An important task of MOT is to identify and track the same object across two frames. Identification (ID) precision (IDP), ID recall (IDR), ID F1 measure (IDF1), and ID switches (IDs) may be used as measures for evaluating the identification and tracking of the same objects39,40.Data analysisThe toxicity test using Daphnia magna was performed following the Korean official Acute Toxicity Test Method29. The test medium was prepared by dissolving KCl (8 mg/L), (text {MgSO}_4) (120 mg/L), (text {CaSO}_4 cdot 2 text {H}_2 text {O} ) (120 mg/L), and (text {NaHCO}_3) (192 mg/L) in deionized water. Considering that Daphnia magna are neonates for less than 24 h after birth29, five neonates were exposed to 50 mL of different concentrations of heavy metals such as Potassium dichromate, Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate, and Lead(II) sulfate (6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, and 100%) and 50 mL of culture media. Potassium dichromate is a common inorganic reagent used as an oxidizing agent in chemical industries. Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate is a trace material widely used in industrial processes and agriculture. A significant amount of copper is emitted in semiconductor manufacturing processes, which adversely impacts the aquatic ecosystem. When present as an ion in water, copper can be acutely toxic to aquatic organisms such as Daphnia magna. Lead(II) sulfate is another nonessential and nonbiodegradable heavy metal. It is highly toxic to numerous organisms even at low concentrations and can accumulate in aquatic ecosystems41. Twenty Daphnia magna (four replicates of five each) were exposed to each test solution for 24 h. The term “immobility” means that the Daphnia magna remains stationary after exposure to chemicals such as Potassium dichromate, Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate, and Lead(II) sulfate. In this study, immobility was used as an endpoint identifier, and the number of mobile Daphnia magna were counted to evaluate the EC50 values for the samples using the ToxCalc 5.0 program (Tidepoll Software, USA).The locomotory responses of Daphnia magna were tested after 0, 12, 18, and 24 h of exposure at different concentrations. Potassium dichromate ((text {K}_2text {Cr}_2text {O}_7)) at 2 mg/L was connected to the Daphnia magna tracking system, and standard toxic substances were automatically diluted to 100%, 50%, 25%, 12.5%, and 6.25%. The automatic high-throughput Daphnia magna tracking system automatically measured the tracking results of a 1-minute-long video at hourly intervals. The average moving distance for 20 s of each Daphnia magna in each chamber was analyzed using a repeated measures ANOVA (RMANOVA). RMANOVA was used for the analysis of data obtained by repeatedly measuring the same Daphnia magna42. It analyzes the concentration effect excluding the time effect at each hour. The time effect means the change in average distance per 20 s. RMANOVA was implemented using the agricolae package of the R 4.0.4 program43. To remove the noise affecting RMANOVA, the Daphnia magna that remained stationary for 20 s or more were removed from the observations. In this study, we used the significance level at 5%. More