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Plankton are microscopic organisms at the base of aquatic food webs and therefore essential to all life on Earth. In our view, international legal protection of plankton is urgently needed because of their high susceptibility to the effects of climate change, including ocean warming and acidification.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests. More

Commensal rodents serve as important reservoirs of rodent-borne pathogens. Efforts to reduce the risk of pathogen transmission include decimating rodent populations, altering access pathways, upholding good waste management practices and denying easy access to food sources. In our study, we examined the incidence of rodent activity in waste collection premises in public residential estates in Singapore and examined the factors associated with rodent activity to inform the priority of rodent control measures of resource limited municipal estate managers.Of the three types of waste collection premises, rodent activity had the highest incidence in refuse bin centres followed by CRCs and IRC bin chambers. Refuse bin centres are prone to refuse spillage because refuse is manually transferred from refuse collection carts into bulk bins and refuse compactors located within the centres. Bin centres tend to be larger than CRCs and IRC bin chambers and the storage of bulky waste that provide additional areas of rodent harbourage are a common sight in Singapore. IRC chambers and refuse bin centres in combination far outnumber CRCs, and the former two are a distinct characteristic of older public housing estates in Singapore. This suggests that older public housing estates have a higher propensity for rodent infestation compared to newer ones. Aging infrastructure can also provide a greater number of harbourage areas and alternate access pathways for rodent travel that increase their ability to obtain food sources. Our study findings were in support of previous studies which found that older infrastructure was associated with a greater likelihood of rodent activity22,23.We also found that the number of IRC bin chutes was positively associated with rodent infestation. Fluids from food waste in IRC bin chambers are drained directly into a sanitary line that is common to all other bin chambers within the same building. A possible explanation therefore is that rodents which find their way into the sanitary line can easily access all bin chambers in the same building. This suggests that preventing individual bin chamber access may reduce food availability to rodents which traverse the sanitary line in search of food sources.In the present study, we observed that rodent sightings were relatively higher in some months in the first half of the calendar year compared to the second half. Even though our estimates were positive, those for some months were not statistically significant. In Singapore, end-December, January to February are usually associated with increased food production due to the year-end (Christmas and New Year celebrations) and early-year (Chinese New Year) festivities. A proportionate increase in food waste over that period could improve survivability of rodents that leads to increased mating and reproduction. We therefore postulate that the higher seasonal rodent activity is plausible but recommend that future studies be conducted with sufficient longitude to examine the differences in the seasonal pattern across the three categories of premises more closely. A previous study in Harbin, China27 reported a seasonal pattern in the age composition of R. norvegicus while an ecological study on R. norvegicus in Salvador Brazil did not find any difference in the number of rats trapped between the dry and rainy seasons28. The inconsistent seasonal findings between studies could be due to the differences in the climate, degree of urbanization and environmental conditions of study locations.The relative rise in rodent activity in the first half of the year coupled with older estates being at greater risk of rodent activity suggest that municipal town councils which prioritize regular infrastructural repairs and improvements in older estates and complete them in the second half of each calendar year would help mitigate the anticipated rise in the first half of the new calendar year.In our study, we examined the relations between visual cues and rodent activity to help estate managers prioritise their control efforts. We found that rodent droppings were a common positive predictor of rodent activity across all three categories of waste collection premises. In particular, the odds of droppings in IRC bin chambers were the highest among the three categories of premises. We hypothesize that the probability of rodent dropping sightings was in part related to the accessibility of food waste and thus time spent by rodents within the respective waste collection premises. Each IRC chamber contains an open top bin that receives waste that is disposed down the IRC chamber chute. Food waste in IRC bin chambers are thus more easily accessed by rodents compared to in CRCs where waste is stored in a compactor and in bin centres where bulk bins are covered until the waste is compacted or collected.In Salvador, Brazil, the presence of Rattus norvegicus droppings were independently associated with an increased risk of Leptospira infection in humans29. Further research on site-specific Leptospira infection risks in Singapore are required to affirm the utility of droppings as an indicator for Leptospira infection risk. In addition, rub marks and gnaw marks were also positive predictors of rodent activity in CRCs and IRC bin chambers. A study in Chile reported that gnaw marks and holes, as well as grease or rub marks left behind by rodent travel were indicators of rodent activity30. A previous study carried out in an urban city in Taiwan reported that rodent droppings and rub marks were well correlated with rodent infestation31. Our findings, which were in support of these previous studies, suggest that estate managers can maximise the cost effectiveness of their resources by focusing their control efforts based on visual cues without relying solely on trapping activities for surveillance.We found a positive relationship between the number of rodent burrows and rodent activity in all three waste collection premises, though this was only significant for refuse bin centres. That the direction of effect for burrows was consistent these three premises, was a reassuring observation. It is possible that we did not have enough study power to establish the observed positive relations in CRCs and IRC bin chambers. Therefore future studies should seek to confirm our findings. R. norvegicus excavate extensive burrow systems that are able to house a large number of rats32. They exhibit a strong preference for creating burrows in loose soil and on sloping terrain33 and construct shallow burrows in close proximity to water bodies and food sources34. As rodent burrows are primarily used for nesting, food storage and harbourage purposes35, burrows can provide important information about the extent of rodent activity in an area and may be used as an indicator for estate managers to focus their investigations.A previous study in New York, United States found that the presence of numerous restaurants, or having older infrastructure were associated with increased levels of R. norvegicus22. Unexpectedly, we did not find any evidence that the number of dining establishments was associated with rodent activity. However, instances of rodent activity have been reported in food establishments in Singapore36,37,38. We hypothesize that rodent movement is restricted to the surrounding area of the food establishments due to the plethora of food available, with little reason for rodents to venture into waste collection premises. Future studies examining the relationship between rodent activity in food establishments and waste collection premises are required to confirm this.In our study, the presence of gnaw marks (aOR: 5.61), rub marks (aOR: 5.04) in CRCs and rodent droppings in CRCs (aOR: 6.20), IRC bin chambers (aOR: 90.84) and bin centres (aOR: 3.61) had the largest strengths of association with rodent activity. Comparatively, in a study in Johannesburg, South Africa, predictors such as dampness (aOR: 2.54) and cracks (aOR: 1.92) in homes had relatively smaller effects on rodent activity20, while a study in Salvador, Brazil found relatively larger effects of homes with dilapidated fences and walls (aOR: 8.95) and those built on earthen slopes (aOR: 4.95)21. This suggests that rodent activity can be strongly influenced by site- and setting-specific factors, and supports the body of evidence on the strong adaptability of rodents in our urban environment”.Urban environments have the capacity to alter the biology of the pathogens, hosts and vectors, which can influence disease transmission39. The proximate setting of dense urban environments allows for close contact between humans and synanthropic rodents, thereby increasing the transmission risk of zoonotic diseases4. In addition to causing diseases in human populations, urban rats are also known to compromise food safety, damage infrastructure and cause mental health distress25,40. The responsibility of rodent control in residential estates is important but may be one among many other competing public health and estate management responsibilities that municipal town councils have to undertake. Consequently, estate managers have to prioritize their limited resources in order to maximise the cost effectiveness of their resource allocation choices. Based on our study findings, we recommend that estate managers adopt a risk-based approach in vector control resource allocation in waste collection premises according to infrastructural age and visual cues for rodent activity.IRC bin chambers which are a distinct feature of the oldest residential buildings, were observed with a substantially higher odds of rodent activity compared to the other categories of waste collection premises. This suggests that rodent control resource allocation should be prioritized in older residential estates. The clear seasonal pattern of rodent activity in CRCs suggests that estate managers can increase their rodent control activities thereat in the first half of the year. Finally, easy access to food waste directly increases the probability of survival and consequently the rodent population size. Future research should examine the quality of municipal solid waste management and the waste processing flow in residential estates to determine how rodent access to food waste can be further minimized to reduce the population of rodents.Study strengths and limitationsWe analysed data from all public residential estates in Singapore; our findings are thus generalizable at the national level. The use of outcomes and independent measures from individual waste collection premises over multiple cycles of inspection provided stronger evidence for causal inferences. We analysed data over 12 months to account for within-year variations that could influence the outcome measure. Rodents were visually identified without molecular speciation because no trapping was carried out. Though the majority of rodents were observed to be Rattus norvegicus, which is the most common species of rodents in public housing estates in Singapore, we could not rule out misclassification of rodents. However, our findings remain relevant for municipal authorities seeking to prioritize resources for vector control in waste collection premises under their care. More

These authors contributed equally: Arjun Srivathsa, Divya Vasudev, Tanaya Nair, Jagdish Krishnaswamy, Uma Ramakrishnan.National Centre for Biological Science, TIFR, Bengaluru, IndiaArjun Srivathsa, Tanaya Nair, Mahesh Sankaran & Uma RamakrishnanWildlife Conservation Society-India, Bengaluru, IndiaArjun SrivathsaConservation Initiatives, Guwahati, IndiaDivya Vasudev & Varun R. GoswamiDivision of Biosciences, University College London, London, UKTanaya NairDepartments of Biology and Environmental Studies, Macalester College, Saint Paul, MN, USAStotra ChakrabartiWorld Wildlife Fund, Delhi, IndiaPranav Chanchani, Arpit Deomurari, Dipankar Ghose & Prachi ThatteDepartment of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USARuth DeFriesAmity Institute of Forestry and Wildlife, Amity University, Noida, IndiaArpit DeomurariWildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, IndiaSutirtha DuttaFoundation for Ecological Research, Advocacy and Learning, Bengaluru, IndiaRajat Nayak & Srinivas VaidyanathanNetwork for Conserving Central India, Gurgaon, IndiaAmrita NeelakantanWorld Resources Institute, New Delhi, IndiaMadhu VermaSchool of Environment and Sustainability, Indian Institute for Human Settlements, Bengaluru, IndiaJagdish KrishnaswamyAshoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bengaluru, IndiaJagdish KrishnaswamyBiodiversity Collaborative, Bengaluru, IndiaJagdish Krishnaswamy, Mahesh Sankaran & Uma Ramakrishnan More