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Study site and subject detailsThe study was conducted at the Inkawu Vervet Project (IVP) in a 12,000-hectare private game reserve: Mawana (28° 00.327 S, 031° 12.348 E) in KwaZulu Natal province, South Africa. The vegetation of the study site consisted in a savannah characterized by a mosaic of grasslands and clusters of trees of the typical savannah thornveld, bushveld and thicket patches. We studied two groups of wild vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus): ‘Noha’ (NH) and ‘Kubu’ (KB). NH was composed of 34 individuals (6 adult males; 9 adult females; 6 juvenile males; 7 juvenile females; 5 infant males; 1 infant female) and KB was composed of 19 individuals (1 adult male; 6 adult females; 3 juvenile males; 4 juvenile females; 3 infant males; 2 infant females; Table S1). Males were considered as adults once they dispersed, and females were considered as adults after they gave their first birth. Individuals that did not fulfil these criteria were considered as juveniles28 and infants were aged less than 1 year old. In EWA models, infants and juveniles were lumped in a single category “juveniles”. Each group had been habituated to the presence of human observers: since 2010 for NH and since 2013 for KB. All individuals were identifiable thanks to portrait photographs and specific individual body and face features (scars, colours, shape etc.).This research adhered to the “Guidelines for the use of animals in research” of Association for Study of Animal Behaviour, was approved by the relevant local authority, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, South Africa and complied with the ARRIVE guidelines.Hierarchy establishmentAgonistic interactions (aggressor behaviour: stare, chase, attack, hit, bite, take place; victim behaviour: retreat, flee, leave, avoid, jump aside) were collected from May 2018 to October 2018, aside from experiment days, on all the adults and juveniles of both groups via ad libitum sampling50 and food competition tests (i.e. corn provided to the whole group from a plastic box). Data were collected by CC, MBC and different observers from the IVP team. Before beginning data collection, observers had to pass an inter-observer reliability test with 80% reliability for each data category between two observers. Data were collected on tablets (Vodacom Smart Tab 2) equipped with Pendragon version 8.Individual hierarchical ranks were determined by the outcome of dyadic agonistic interactions recorded ad libitum and through food competition tests using Socprog software version 2.751. Hierarchies in both groups were significantly linear (NH: h′ = 0.27; P  More

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