Ecology

The solitary cold-water scleractinian C. huinayensis is described here as a brooder. Although reproduction in scleractinian CWCs is still poorly known, no other temperate species has yet been described to brood larvae. The solitary temperate CWC D. dianthus12, as well as the temperate colonial CWC D. pertusum8,10,38, M. oculata8,10 and O. varicosa9 reproduce by broadcast spawning. Brooding has only been reported in subpolar and polar solitary CWCs from the Southern Ocean17,18.Although quantitative data on the number of larvae released in the four Southern Ocean brooders are lacking, a potential number of larvae released per polyp can be inferred from their maximum fecundity (Table 1). C. huinayensis appears to be in the lower range of larvae production (6.5 ± 11.4 month-1 larvae), when compared its larval size (750–1080 µm length) with Balanophyllia malouinensis larvae ( > 600 µm, Table 1).Table 1 Larval features of scleractinian CWC species.Full size tableThorson’s rule43,44 states that organisms at higher latitudes tend to produce larger and fewer offspring and are frequently brooders. However, the brooding C. huinayensis appears to defy this rule, as it occurs at mid-latitudes (36° and 48.5° S33,45). Though the phylogeography of C. huinayensis is not yet clear, six other solitary species of the genus Caryophyllia are endemic to Antarctica46, suggesting that the genus may have originated in the Southern Ocean, with the mid-latitude distribution of C. huinayensis making the downstream end dispersal via the cold Humboldt Current branching off the Southern Ocean. In our case, Thorson’s rule does not seem to be a good predictor of the macroevolutionary patterns and reproductive mode in Caryophyllia.A better explanation can be inferred from Kerr et al.47. Their phylogenetic study on scleractinians revealed that the change from spawning to brooding (or vice versa) is based on the sexuality of the corals (i.e., gonochoric or hermaphroditic) and not on latitudinal distribution. The main pathway is from gonochoric spawners to gonochoric brooders, then to hermaphroditic brooders, and finally hermaphroditic spawning, which is the dominant reproductive mode in shallow-water corals.The results of our study indicate that C. huinayensis reproduces throughout the year, albeit with large temporal variations in the number of larvae released. However, the fluctuations were not seasonal. This may be due to the fact that the aquarium for this experiment lacked external timing signals (zeitgebers) usually found in the field, i.e., there were no fluctuations e.g., in water temperature, food frequency, food quality, or salinity, which might otherwise have synchronized the corals’ internal clock. Although, it is not yet known if the local C. huinayensis population exhibits seasonality in their larval release, the lack of larvae in April 2021 could also be due to poor internal fertilisation success based on the quality and/or quantity of sperm released (which was never observed).If there is no seasonal release of larvae from the natural coral population, this may indicate that rapid recolonisation is possible throughout the year following a disturbance. Substrate alterations are usually observed in the Patagonian fjord region, where strong physical disturbances such as landslides occur48, due to precipitation and earthquakes49. Also, hypoxia events ( More

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