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Some orb-weaving spiders can hijack firefly mating signals to lure victims1.

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doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-02652-7

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Poisonous toads are killing freshwater crocodiles in Australia, but taste-aversion training might help to save the reptiles’ lives1.

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Conservation biology More

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Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) were hunted to near extinction by commercial whaling, their numbers have since resurged.Credit: Connect Images/Alamy

At the height of the whaling industry, thousands of whales were killed each year — mainly for their oil, a fuel used widely throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. By the 1930s, more people were becoming aware that whaling was unsustainable. In 1946, the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) was signed, and the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was established as the decision-making body to deal with the problem. It was the world’s first global convention designed to address a significant threat to wildlife.The IWC will hold its 69th meeting in Lima in September. As the convention nears its 80th anniversary, we propose that the IWC hands over several pending issues to other conventions and national governments and closes up shop.The IWC’s accomplishments — managing global whale populations and especially implementing a moratorium on commercial whaling in 1985 — are laudable. But these achievements lie four decades in the past. IWC meetings since have been a source of acrimonious and fruitless dialogue among member nations. By exiting with dignity, the IWC would set a powerful example for the international environmental community.A bright beginningThe ICRW was originally established to deal with the “conservation of whale stocks and … the orderly development of the whaling industry”. Conservation in this context meant ensuring that enough whales were protected so that some could be harvested sustainably. But as it became clear that most species were in severe population decline1, the IWC decided in 1982 that commercial whaling for all species everywhere should cease from the 1985–86 season onwards2.The agreement was groundbreaking in its ambition. It led to the near-total cessation of whaling activities, with a few notable exceptions (see ‘Where whaling still goes on’), and has contributed to the resurgence of many whale species, including the largest animal on Earth, the blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus (see ‘Making a comeback’).
Where whaling still goes on

A moratorium implemented by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) has stopped almost all commercial whaling since 1985.
Some Indigenous populations, mainly in the Arctic, are permitted to harvest whales2. And Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling — arguably a legal loophole that enables commercial whaling to persist — allows governments to “grant to any of its nationals a special permit … to kill, take and treat whales for … scientific research”10,11. Japan’s use of provisions of this article1 (since 1991) prompted Australia to take Japan to the International Court of Justice in 2013.
But today, only three nations still have commercial whaling operations: Norway, Japan and Iceland. In the 1980s, Japan agreed to the moratorium with the provision that it would be “kept under review, based upon the best scientific advice”, and that “by 1990 at the latest the Commission [would] undertake a comprehensive assessment of [its] effects”2. In 2018, however, the nation announced that it would leave the IWC and become an observer state, meaning that its IWC representative would attend meetings but not vote. And in 2019, Japan re-commenced whaling operations in its exclusive economic zone. Norway and Iceland, through legal reservation, do not abide by the moratorium.

This is a huge achievement. But in the years since, the convention has done little to help conserve the great whales (including the gray, humpback, right, sperm, bowhead and minke whale), or encourage the sustainable harvesting of their populations.The number of ICRW member nations (many of which have never whaled) has ranged from around 30 in 1990 to nearly 90 today. After the moratorium on whaling was established, many IWC government members were not prepared to revisit it; work on a ‘comprehensive assessment’ to evaluate the impacts of the moratorium has proceeded at a snail’s pace; and two attempts to reform the convention and achieve further useful outcomes from it failed2. Meanwhile, despite decades of discussion, the IWC has had virtually no impact on the whaling that has persisted since 1985. Indeed, none of the nations with limited whaling programmes — Norway, Iceland and Japan — engage in any meaningful way with the convention.Despite the IWC having so little to show from the past four decades of operations, participants and observers continue to meet — once every two years since 2012, rather than annually. And the IWC continues to absorb the time, energy and resources of its members and engaged civil-society organizations. A dispute that began at the IWC but ended up in the International Court of Justice in 2013, for example, involving the Australian and Japanese governments, cost more than Aus$20 million (US$13 million) but had no discernible impact on whale conservation.

Source: IWC

Exit with dignityToday, the IWC should celebrate its accomplishments, devolve its final responsibilities and send a powerful message about the importance of knowing when to stop.Indigenous Arctic communities have continued to hunt whales for sustenance3, with quotas being set by the IWC since 1983 having no discernible effects on whale populations. Even so, in the coming decades, subsistence whaling must be managed effectively, with quotas for each Indigenous group being allocated on the basis of scientific evidence. If the IWC no longer existed, each country could manage their own subsistence whaling. Indeed, Target 5 of the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, which 196 countries have agreed to meet by 2030, is to “ensure that the use, harvesting and trade of wild species is sustainable, safe and legal … while respecting and protecting customary sustainable use by indigenous peoples and local communities”.Similarly, the whaling currently undertaken by Japan, Norway and Iceland — in each nation’s exclusive economic zone, and of species whose populations are currently stable — does not need oversight from almost 90 nations.Some people might argue that letting countries regulate and manage their own whaling in their own waters could result in a resurgence of large-scale commercial whaling. We think that this is extremely unlikely, not least because of the lack of demand for whale products (oil and meat) and changing attitudes around wildlife. What’s more, several other conventions can provide protection against such a scenario.

Japan, Norway and Iceland still conduct commercial whaling.Credit: Getty

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), for example, regulates international trade of endangered wildlife4. All whale species regulated by the IWC are included in CITES Appendix I, a list of the most endangered species. Therefore, international trade of these species is prohibited. All other whale species are included in CITES Appendix II, which means international trade of all cetacean products is regulated. Similarly, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), which already conserves small cetaceans in some regions, such as dolphins and porpoises, could also conserve whales. In fact, the scientific body of the CMS (the Scientific Council) could function, in part, as a global whale observatory, and alert the world to negative trends in any species. Today, the biggest threats to whales are ship strikes, pollution and climate change.Consolidate and streamlineMore than 3,000 international environmental agreements and organizations exist today5. Some of these, such as the Montreal Protocol on ozone depletion, have achieved their goals or are close to doing so. Other initiatives have struggled to achieve much6. Today, the many institutions that have had little impact collectively expend millions of dollars annually on secretariats and meetings, and use up time and resources from governments and civil-society organizations.
Conservation interventions are effective but far from sufficient
In our view, various broader international conventions could be used in place of other wildlife conservation agreements. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, for example, could take over the residual tasks of the Montreal Protocol. The Convention on Biological Diversity could similarly achieve the goals of the 53-year-old Convention on Wetlands7. (In fact, the Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific suspended operations in 2006 for exactly this reason.)Such consolidation would increase efficiency and effectiveness. Indeed, we urge this issue to be included as a key agenda item at the upcoming UN Summit of the Future, an event focused on how world leaders can safeguard the future, which will take place in New York City in September.In 2018, political scientist Julia Gray at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, defined an international convention or organization that consumes time, energy and resources without generating added value as a zombie institution8. Such institutions project the illusion of solving problems even when they persist, or of problems persisting even when they no longer exist9. Zombie organizations undermine the very idea of multilateralism, in which multiple countries form an alliance in pursuit of a common goal. Proud legacies and historical achievements are important. But allowing institutions to become zombies serves no one. More

Scientists attached cameras and sensors to small pieces of neoprene that they glued to the sea lions’ backs.Credit: Nathan Angelakis

Footage captured by sea lions wearing lightweight video cameras is giving researchers a glimpse of previously unexplored areas of the sea floor off the south coast of Australia.The findings, published on 7 August in Frontiers in Marine Science1, include detailed maps of the ocean floor created by combining videos captured by the animals with a machine-learning model. The camera footage also reveals details of how different habitats and species are distributed.“These are particularly deep and remote offshore habitats that you can’t get to by usual surveys that you would conduct from a boat,” says co-author Nathan Angelakis, who researches ecology and evolutionary biology at the South Australian Research and Development Institute in West Beach. “With the data we’re collecting, we’re essentially exploring new parts of the ocean that haven’t been mapped”.Uncharted watersUnderstanding the layout of the sea floor is important for several reasons, including marine conservation, navigation and predicting hazards such as tsunamis. “You can’t manage what you haven’t measured,” says Steve Hall, head of partnerships at the ocean-mapping organization Seabed2030, which is based in Liverpool, UK.
This AI learnt language by seeing the world through a baby’s eyes
Worldwide, just 26% of the sea bed has been mapped at high resolution. This is partly due to the challenges associated with exploring the deep sea, where pressure is extremely high and light levels are low. Researchers typically map the sea bed using remote-operated underwater vehicles or by dropping cameras from surface vessels — but both of these methods are time-consuming and costly.Angelakis and his colleagues trialled a comparatively low-tech approach by enlisting the help of wild Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea). These animals spend most of their time on the sea bed, foraging for food across the continental shelf, the section of the ocean that extends from the coastline. The researchers theorized that by tracking the sea lions’ movements, they would be able to gather information about both the shape of the sea floor and the distribution of different habitats.The authors attached sensors to neoprene patches that they glued to the backs of eight adult females from two of the largest Australian sea-lion colonies. The equipment, which included GPS trackers, cameras and motion sensors, was designed to be small and non-cumbersome, weighing less than 1% of the sea lions’ body weight, so as not to hinder the animals or affect their behaviour. On completion of the project, team members were able to remove the sensors from the patches without damaging the sea lions’ fur.

Together, the sea lions captured 89 hours of footage that took in six distinct sea-floor habitats, from bare sand to meadows of algae.The researchers used the footage to assess biodiversity in these areas, and to compare the locations visited by the two colonies. They also used the videos to check the accuracy of a machine-learning model designed to predict the sea-floor habitat from variables such as sea-surface temperature and distance from the coast. This revealed that the model was more than 98% accurate, so the researchers then used it to map sea-floor habitats in surrounding locations. “One of the real powers of the study is taking the data we collected to predict other unknown areas,” says Angelakis.The team also wants to use the sensor data to explore how factors such as depth and nutrient supply affect habitat distribution and biodiversity on the sea floor. This could help researchers to further explore “the ecological value of different habitats and marine areas to sea lions”, says Angelakis, which could boost conservation efforts.Using sea-lion-mounted sensors is a “very nice way of getting high-resolution data from a hard-to-get-at place”, says Hall. He suggests that in future studies the researchers could equip the sea lions with extra sensors to gather data on the physical and chemical properties of sea-bed habitats. More

Marine heatwaves are increasingly bleaching corals in the Great Barrier Reef off of Australia.Credit: Jurgen Freund/Nature Picture Library/Science Photo Library

Earlier this year, Australia’s Great Barrier Reef cooked at temperatures higher than any it has experienced in at least four centuries, according to climate researchers. The finding — which they published today in Nature1 and attribute to human-induced climate change — comes as scientists rush to understand the impacts of the most intense and extensive coral-bleaching event ever recorded for the 2,300-kilometre reef system.
Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is ‘transforming’ because of repeated coral bleaching
“We now have a long-term record that shows just how extreme these recent events are,” says Ben Henley, a climate scientist at the University of Melbourne in Australia and lead author of the Nature study. Henley and his colleagues determined past ocean temperatures at the Great Barrier Reef by drilling and chemically analysing coral skeleton cores at 22 locations across the massive reef system.Corals usually ‘bleach’ when they are stressed by high temperatures: they expel the colourful algae that live inside them and provide them with energy through photosynthesis. Depending on the severity and duration of the bleaching event, the corals might recover, or they might die, threatening the biodiverse ecosystems that provide habitat for fisheries, attract tourists and protect coastlines from storms.The trend uncovered in the latest study is clear: around the turn of the nineteenth century, after industrialization began, ocean temperatures at the reef began to rise steadily. And in the past two decades, temperatures have spiked, with five of the six warmest years in the 407-year ocean record occurring since 2016 and corresponding to major bleaching events.Impacts uncertainThe study arrives at nearly the same time as the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) in Townsville issues its latest report on the state of the Great Barrier Reef, including data from both aerial and underwater surveys of corals conducted since a massive bleaching event earlier this year. That analysis, released on 7 August, includes some encouraging news: many areas of the reef have bounced back since 2016, when a major bleaching event led to widespread coral mortality.

Researchers remove a core that they drilled from a coral skeleton in the Great Barrier Reef. Credit: Tom DeCarlo

But researchers caution that the impacts of this year’s mass bleaching event aren’t completely captured in the report and that scientists might not get a full picture of the coral mortality for another 6–9 months. Around 30–50% of the reefs surveyed from the air are still at risk, says Neal Cantin, a coral biologist at AIMS, who helped to lead the surveys.“Corals can stay bleached for some time and still survive, so we won’t know the full impact until we are through the recovery phase,” Cantin says. “But if we continue to see this level of accelerated warming and more frequent bleaching, that recovery process is going to degrade pretty quickly.”Hot waterThe latest Nature study focuses on annual temperatures from January through March, when ocean temperatures at the reef are at their peak. This year, according to the new coral-skeleton record, the Coral Sea’s surface temperature during this period reached an average of 1.73 °C above the 1618–1899 average. Henley and his colleagues modelled Earth’s climate both with and without historical greenhouse-gas emissions and determined that the ocean warming trend in their record would not have been possible without human activity.
‘Ecological grief’ grips scientists witnessing Great Barrier Reef’s decline
The researchers think that the evidence might eventually force the United Nations cultural organization UNESCO to reconsider its decision this year not to include the Great Barrier Reef on the list of endangered World Heritage sites.The study results are worrisome, “but not surprising”, says Robert Streit, a reef ecologist at the University of Melbourne. The Australian government has laid out a plan to invest billions of dollars into efforts to conserve the reef and to help corals adapt to warmer waters, but Streit wonders whether this will be enough to stay ahead of the destruction caused by global warming. “Are we creating false hope that science can solve these problems?”Henley says it’s clear that the reef will not survive in its current form if temperatures continue to rise, and this raises crucial questions about what will remain in the decades to come. “I think it’s likely that the Great Barrier Reef will be a very different place in 20–30 years,” he says. More

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“In this photo, I’m holding a snake known in Italy as a cervone (Elaphe quatuorlineata). It’s one of 189 that we’ve inspected so far in 2024 in Cocullo, a small town in the Abruzzo region of central Italy.In Cocullo, snakes feature in a spring ritual that dates back at least 2,000 years. At the start of April, snake catchers (known as serpari) capture dozens of snakes in preparation for what’s become Christianized as the procession of St Dominic of Sora. A statue of the saint — who lived in the region and, according to legend, cured many people from snake bites — is then adorned with live snakes and carried through the streets of Cocullo.A project to monitor the health and growth of the snakes has been in place for more than 15 years. I work with Gianpaolo Montinaro, who conceived the project in 2007, to supervise the monitoring on behalf of Italy’s environment ministry. My team, which includes two veterinarians at the University of Bari, acquires biological data and samples and places a microchip in each snake so that it can identified in future. At the end of the ritual, the snakes are released at the exact spot where they were captured.The information collected contributes to scientific publications and strategies on snake conservation — and, from this year, to a project at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior to study animals’ responses to natural disasters. We’d never have been able to collect data on snake populations for so long had it not been for the Cocullo festival. Since 2010, we’ve gathered data on more than 1,500 snakes. This is a genuine example of citizen science, and is all the more impressive given that snakes are widely feared.Outside the snake-festival season, I deal with invasive exotic species, biodiversity-protection policies and endangered species.” More