Ecology

Author notes
These authors jointly supervised this work: Elizabeth A. Archie and José M. Montoya.

Affiliations

Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
Johannes R. Björk & Elizabeth A. Archie

Theoretical and Experimental Ecology Station, CNRS-University Paul Sabatier, Moulis, France
Johannes R. Björk & José M. Montoya

Natural History Museum, London, UK
Cristina Díez-Vives

School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
Carmen Astudillo-García

Authors
Johannes R. Björk

Cristina Díez-Vives

Carmen Astudillo-García

Elizabeth A. Archie

José M. Montoya

Corresponding authors
Correspondence to Johannes R. Björk or Elizabeth A. Archie or José M. Montoya. More

Screening of solvent and adjuvant
The results of solvent screening are shown in Table 1. The original pesticide could not be completely dissolved using a single solvent. However, 5% N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone + 10% cyclohexanone could completely dissolve the original pesticide. There was no solid precipitation at room temperature, so the formulation could be used for the subsequent experiment. According to Table 2, a mixture of sulfonate adjuvants (70b) and fatty alcohol polyoxyethylene ether adjuvants (AEO-4, -5, -7, -9, 992) could stabilize the system in a single, transparent, homogeneous phase. Therefore, sulfonate adjuvant (70b) was selected and mixed with five adjuvants of the AEO series to prepare thidiazuron·diuron ultra-low-volume sprays, numbered 1–5 (as shown in Table 3).
Table 1 Selection of solvent type and dosage (%: mass fraction).
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Table 2 Selection of adjuvants type and dosage (%: mass fraction).
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Table 3 Ultra-low-volume formulations used in this study.
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Surface tension measurement
The critical surface tension of cotton leaves is 63.30–71.81 mN/m. Figure 1 shows that the surface tension of each sample was 31.67–33.37 mN/m, which was much lower than the critical surface tension of the leaf, indicating the agent was able to completely wet the leaf and be fully distributed on the leaf surface. The maximum surface tension of the reference product was 38.90 mN/m. Under the same dosage of adjuvant, sample 5 with adjuvant 992 had the smallest surface tension of 31.67 mN/m.
Figure 1

Surface tensions of different samples. Different letters (a–d) indicate significant differences between means. Means followed by the same letter are not significant at the 5% significance level by the LSD test (LSD = 0.05). Vertical bars indicate a standard deviation of the mean. The detailed data of the histogram is shown in Supplementary Table S1.

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Contact angle measurement
According to Young’s equation, the smaller the surface tension, the smaller the contact angle40,41. Figure 2 shows the contact angle of different samples on cotton leaves and the change in contact angle over time. The contact angles of oil agents containing the adjuvant 992, AEO-7 and AEO-9 were smaller than that of the reference product, and the spreading effect was superior to that of the reference product. In the surface tension test, sample 5 had the smallest surface tension of 31.67 mN/m; this sample showed the minimum initial contact angle (39°) and a static contact angle (22°). The surface tension of the reference product was 38.90 mN/m., with the maximum initial contact angle (65.5°). Therefore, the relationship between surface tension and contact angle conformed to Young’s equation.
Figure 2

Contact angles of different samples on cotton leaves in 0–10 s. The detailed data of drawing the contact Angle curve is shown in Supplementary Table S2.

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Volatilization rate measurement
As shown in Fig. 3, the volatilization rate of the oil agent was much lower than that of the reference product. The volatilization rate of the five treatments was 5.80–8.74%, while the volatilization rate of the reference product was 22.97%. The volatilization rate of the oil agent met the quality requirements of an ultra-low-volume spray (≤ 30%). A low volatilization rate helps with spraying defoliants in hot and dry areas such as Xinjiang, effectively preventing evaporation of the droplets and increasing deposition.
Figure 3

Volatilization of different samples on filter paper. Different letters (a–e) indicate significant differences between means. Means followed by the same letter are not significant at the 5% significance level by the LSD test (LSD = 0.05). Vertical bars indicate a standard deviation of the mean. The detailed data of the histogram is shown in Supplementary Table S3.

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Viscosity measurement
Viscosity is an important factor affecting the atomization performance of a formulation42. Figure 4 shows that the viscosity of the five oil agents ranged from 12.9 to 18.3 mPa s, meeting the quality requirements of an ultra-low-volume spray ( 20 V), the droplet size distribution tended to be stable. This coincided with data shown in Fig. 6, where the inflection point appeared when rotation speed was 9600 rpm (voltage = 20 V).
Figure 6

Relationship between the rotation speed of the centrifugal spray atomizer and droplet size. D10: 10% cumulative volume diameter, D50: 50% cumulative volume diameter, D90: 90% cumulative volume diameter. The detailed data of drawing the curve is shown in Supplementary Table S6.

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Figure 7

Relationship between the rotation speed of the centrifugal spray atomizer and the fog droplet spectrum. The detailed data of drawing the curve is shown in Supplementary Table S6.

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Therefore, we determined that the optimal working conditions for the rotary atomizer were achieved by setting the DC voltage stabilized power supply current to 1.00 A and voltage to 20 V, which were used for subsequent experiments.
Atomization performance
The relationship between viscosity and droplet spectrum are shown in Table 4 and Fig. 8. The cumulative volume diameter for the five treatments was less than 150 μm meeting the requirements of the ULV spray32. The cumulative volume diameter for the five treatments was larger than that for the reference product, the width of the droplet spectrum was narrower, and the droplet distribution was more uniform. Droplet size affects the drift of droplets43. The D10 of the reference product was 25.62 μm under these working conditions. This droplet size was highly susceptible to drift and deposition on non-target organisms. Water suspension was not suitable for this application at low dosage.
Table 4 Droplet size and droplet size distribution of different sample sprays.
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Figure 8

Relationship between formulation viscosity and droplet spectrum. The detailed data of drawing the figure is shown in Supplementary Table S7.

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As presented in Table 4, droplet size increased with increasing viscosity, which influenced the droplet spectrum. The results in Fig. 8 show that the span of droplet size decreased with the increase of viscosity, indicating that droplets with more uniform distribution could be obtained by increasing the viscosity of the formulation41.
Droplet deposition effect
We tested the efficacy of the ULV spray formulation by spraying cotton plants using an UAV. The test results in Table 5 indicate that increasing the dosage of application would increase droplet size, coverage, and deposition density. At the same application dosage, the droplet size of the ultra-low-volume spray was slightly larger than that of the reference product, and the coverage and deposition density were greater than those of the reference product. The droplet spectral width (Rs) of the five treatments was less than 1, and the coefficient of variation was less than 7%, indicating that the droplet distribution was relatively uniform. Among treatments, T2 had the narrowest Rs and coefficient of variation (CV), where the droplet size distribution was the most uniform. For the ultra-low-volume spray, at the application dosage of 4.5–9.0 L/ha, the droplet coverage gradually increased from 0.85 to 4.15%; the droplet deposition densities were 15.63, 17.24, 28.45, and 42.57 pcs/cm2, which were larger than requirements suggested in the literature. The droplet coverage of the reference product (T5) was 0.73%, and the deposition density was only 11.32 pcs/cm2.
Table 5 Droplet size, coverage, deposition density, spectral width and variation coefficient for each treatment.
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Efficacy trials
The efficacy of cotton defoliant is reflected in the defoliation rate and boll opening rate of cotton after application. Therefore, we surveyed the defoliation rate and boll opening rate of cotton in the test area 3–15 days after application. The results are shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
Figure 9

Defoliation rate 3–15 days after treatment. The detailed data of drawing the curve is shown in Supplementary Table S8.

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Figure 10

Boll opening rate 3–15 days after treatment. The detailed data of drawing the curve is shown in Supplementary Table S9.

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Figure 9 indicates that the defoliation rates of the five treatments 15 days after the pesticide treatment were 59.82%, 63.96%, 71.40%, 77.84%, and 54.58%, respectively. The defoliation rates of T1, T2, and T5 were less than 70%.
Application of the ultra-low-volume spray at 4.50 L/ha or 6.00 L/ha and the reference product at 6.00 L/ha had a poor defoliation effect. T4 (9.00 L/ha) was superior to the others, and the defoliation rate reached 77.84% 15 days after application. As shown in Fig. 10, the boll opening rates of the five treatments were 58.54%, 67.74%, 95.35%, 100%, and 44.68% 15 days after application. Similarly, the boll opening rates of T1, T2, and T5 were poor, with the boll opening rate of the control T5 only 44.68%. We analyzed significant differences between the defoliation rates and boll opening rates of the five treatments. The results showed that the defoliation rate and boll opening rate associated with the thidiazuron·diuron ultra-low-volume spray on cotton plants were significantly different from those of the reference product.
Overall, the defoliation rate and boll opening rate produced by the ultra-low-volume spray were superior to those produced by the reference product. This result was consistent with data shown in Table 5. The higher the droplet coverage rate, the higher the droplet deposition density and the higher the defoliation rate and boll opening rate. T1, T2 and T5 had poor deposition effect on cotton plants, and the effective pesticide utilization rate was low, resulting in dissatisfactory defoliation rates and boll opening rates. Both the droplet coverage rate and the droplet deposition density of T3 and T4 were large. Therefore, droplets of pesticide solution could deposit more easily and uniformly on cotton leaves, allowing the plants to defoliate and open their bolls easily. More

Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi meets Maurice Strong, who chaired the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment. Gandhi saw UNEP’s potential at a time when other countries doubted its value.Credit: Yutaka Nagata/UN Photo

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) will be 50 next year. But the globe’s green watchdog, which helped to create the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), very nearly didn’t exist.
During talks hosted by Sweden in 1972, low- and middle-income countries were concerned that such a body would inhibit their industrial development. Some high-income countries also questioned its creation. UK representative Solly Zuckerman, a former chief scientific adviser to prime ministers including Winston Churchill, said the science did not justify warnings that human activities could have irreversible consequences for the planet. The view in London was that, on balance, environmental pollution was for individual nations to solve — not the UN.
But the idea of UNEP had powerful supporters, too. India’s prime minister, Indira Gandhi, foresaw its potential in enabling industry to become cleaner and more humane. And the host nation made a wise choice in picking Canadian industrialist Maurice Strong to steer the often fractious talks to success. He would become UNEP’s first executive director. Two decades later, Strong re-emerged to chair the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which created three landmark international agreements: to protect biodiversity, safeguard the climate and combat desertification.
UNEP has chalked up some impressive achievements in science and legislation. In 1988, working with the World Meteorological Organization, it co-founded the IPCC, whose scientific assessments have been pivotal to global climate action. It also responded to scientists’ warnings about the hole in the ozone layer, leading to the creation of the 1987 Montreal Protocol, an international law to phase out ozone-depleting chemicals.
Strong’s successors would go on to identify emerging green-policy issues and nudge them into the mainstream. UNEP has pushed the world of finance to think about how to stop funding polluting industries. It has also advocated working with China to green its rapid industrial growth — including the Belt and Road Initiative to develop global infrastructure. It is essential that this work continues.
UNEP also accelerated the creation of environment ministries around the world. Their ministers sit on the programme’s governing council; at their annual meeting last week, they reflected on what UNEP must do to tackle the environmental crisis. Although the environment is a rising priority for governments, businesses and civil society, progress on the UN’s flagship Sustainable Development Goals — in biodiversity, climate, land degradation, pollution, finance and more — is next to non-existent. Moreover, the degradation of nature is putting hard-won gains at risk, argues a report that UNEP commissioned as part of its half-century commemorations.
The report, Making Peace with Nature, assesses much of the same literature as would a climate- or land-degradation assessment, but its key strength is in how it brings together researchers from across environmental science. In doing so, UNEP is helping to accelerate a mode of working that should be standard. If, for example, there is to be an assessment of how climate change affects biodiversity, it makes much more sense for this to be carried out by a joint team from the IPCC and the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) than by researchers from just one of these organizations.
The UNEP report’s authors stop short of recommending such changes to the architecture of the UN’s scientific advisory bodies. That is a missed opportunity. Also missing is a discussion and recommendations on how to make countries more accountable for their environmental pledges.
Both these actions are sorely needed if the world is to take more meaningful steps to battle climate change and biodiversity loss. Countries have become expert in capturing data and reporting them to UN organizations. But there is no mechanism that holds nations to account. For example, there is no system to ensure compliance with targets for the Sustainable Development Goals.
Last week, the UN produced a report in which countries published their progress towards commitments under the 2015 Paris climate agreement, known as nationally determined contributions. The agreement includes almost 200 countries, but just 75 reported their data. There are few incentives for success and no penalties for failure. Without such measures, it is hard to see how meaningful change could ever happen.
In the past, researchers have proposed that UNEP’s member states upgrade its powers so it becomes more of a compliance body — a World Environment Organization that, like the World Trade Organization, has the power to censure countries for failing to keep to agreements. But this has been resisted as too radical a step, which would upend the autonomy of the UN biodiversity and climate organizations that UNEP itself helped to bring into being.
Twenty years ago, there might have been some justification for such a view, but now, with the world on a path to extreme climate change, any action will need to be radical, including considering how to give UNEP more teeth.
UNEP helped to lay the foundations for a scientific consensus on environmental decline, and it should be proud of the body of law that has been enacted globally. Alas, such measures risk being too little, too late. As it embarks on a year of reflection ahead of its anniversary, member states must consider what more they need to do to empower UNEP to tackle the planetary emergency. More

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