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The results of ANOVA tests were summarised in Table 1. None of the interaction effect was significant. Therefore, the main effects of disc type and working depth were presented in the following sections.
Table 1 Summary of ANOVA test results.
Full size table

Soil cutting forces
The rippled disc required an average draft force of 675 N, which was numerically the highest among the discs (Fig. 1a). The notched disc had a minimal draft force demand of 579 N. Increasing the working depth from the shallow (63.5 mm) to deep (127 mm) resulted in the draft force increasing from 291 to 965 N. This more-than-tripled increase was significant and can be explained by the soil dynamics theory that draft force varies with the contact area between soil and tool22. The rippled edge slightly increased the surface area as compared to the smooth edge, while the notched edge slightly decreased the contact area due to the notches. As for the depth effect, a deeper operation significantly increased the portion of the disc in contact with soil regardless of the disc type.
Figure 1

Soil cutting forces of different discs at different working depths: (a) draft force, (b) vertical force, and (c) lateral force; means followed by different lower case letters or upper case letters are significantly different according to Tukey’s test at the significance level of 0.05; error bars are standard deviations.

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All the vertical forces measured were positive, which indicated that they were acting on the disc in the downward direction (Fig. 1b) that favored the disc penetration into the soil. The rippled disc had the maximal vertical force of 289 N, which will help to maintain its working depth as compared to the other two discs. As was expected, the notched disc experienced the minimal vertical force of 164 N, which was lower than that of the rippled disc. The plain disc had a medium vertical force, which was not different from the other two discs. The lower vertical force of the notched disc may not necessarily affect its superior ability of soil penetration. The deep working depth created a 65.9% higher vertical force as compared to the shallow depth. The vertical forces of similar magnitudes were also observed in previous studies, such as approximately 200 N in Nalavade et al.23.
There were no significant differences among the discs in terms of the lateral force (Fig. 1c). The notched disc had the minimal lateral force of 215 N. The lateral force increased roughly twofold from 171 to 347 N as the disc was operated from the shallow to deep depths, which was significant. The insignificant difference in the lateral force among the discs was partially attributed to their identical disc angles and similar concavity. Lower lateral forces are usually desired in terms of the frame stability of the implement. The increase of the lateral force as the depth increased indicated a great deal of attention must be paid on the frame strength when designing the disc for deep tillage application.
The soil cutting forces were resultant forces of passive cutting reaction on the concave face and the scrubbing reaction on the convex face for a concave disc24. Both the cutting force and scrubbing force acted at some angle between the horizontal and vertical directions. The projected soil cutting force was against the travel direction in the horizontal direction and downward in the vertical direction; on the other hand, the projected scrubbing force is along the travel direction and upward. The resultant draft force was against the travel direction and the resultant vertical force was downward, which was the same as that of the cutting force. This agreed with the literature that the scrubbing force on the trailing convex side of the disc tends to be minor compared to the cutting force on the leading concave side of the disc22. However, the soil cutting forces were smaller than those reported in Godwin et al.25. The combination of shallow concavity and small disc angle used in this study possibly helped in reducing the soil cutting forces in all three directions. The results agreed with that in Choi and Erback20, where the notched disc had the least forces and the forces were more dependent on the working depth than the disc shape.
Soil displacements
The soil forward displacement was maximized with the rippled disc and was minimized with the notched disc (Fig. 2a). The plain disc resulted in a medium soil forward displacement of 264 mm. During the operation of the notched disc, some soil particles might not be pushed forward, but being passed over by the notches. This could explain the small soil displacements observed for the notched disc. However, statistical analysis did not show any significant differences among the three discs with regard to soil forward displacement. The soil tracers were dislodged 184 mm on average when the discs were used at the shallow depth, which was increased by 73.4% at the deep depth.
Figure 2

Soil displacements of different discs at different working depths in three directions: (a) forward, (b) lateral, and (c) upward; means followed by different lower case letters or upper case letters are significantly different according to Tukey’s test at the significance level of 0.05; error bars are standard deviations.

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The rippled disc moved the soil tracers the furthest in the lateral direction at 197 mm (Fig. 2b). The notched disc created the minimal soil lateral displacement of 109 mm, which was less than that of the other two discs. The soil lateral displacement was increased by 42.0% as the working depth changed from the shallow to deep depth. The soil lateral displacement was the average displacement of all the tracers in the lateral direction and a positive value denoted the direction pointing toward the concave face of the disc. It was worth noting that soil tracers on the convex side tended to be pushed away in the opposite direction as compared to other tracers as observed in the experiment. This was related to the scrubbing action as described above.
No significant difference was found in the soil vertical displacement among the treatments (Fig. 2c). All the soil vertical displacements were less than 20 mm with an average of 10.6 mm. Similar to the lateral displacement, not all tracers were dislodged in the same direction. However, the majority of them were in an upward direction including the average value. The small upward displacements indicated moderate soil swelling and elevating movements and minimal soil overturning effect of the discs. This was supported by the soil failure pattern study in Nalavade et al.23, which observed that the dominating compressive shear failure pattern of the free-rolling disc discouraged soil inversion actions.
Residue mixing
The rippled disc had the highest residue mixing rate of 23.1%, which was higher than that of the notched disc, being the lowest at 14.7% (Fig. 3). The residue mixing of the plain disc was medium among the three discs. As for the working depth, the shallow depth created a residue mixing of 16.7%, which was lower than that of the deep depth.
Figure 3

Residue mixing of different discs at different working depths; means followed by different lower case letters or upper case letters are significantly different according to Tukey’s test at the significance level of 0.05; error bars are standard deviations.

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The residue mixing could be used to estimate the amount of residue being incorporated into the soil, given the surface residue before tillage was 7500 kg/ha. Therefore, the rippled disc was the most effective in terms of the residue incorporation at a rate of 2746 kg/ha. The residue incorporation increased by 606 kg/ha as the working depth increased from shallow to deep. Also, deducting the residue mixing from the original residue cover of 63.1% would be the residue cover remaining. None of the treatments resulted in a residue cover less than 30%, which suggested that all treatments would satisfy the requirement of conservation tillage.
Residue cutting
The residue cutting effectiveness of the discs varied from the highest to the lowest as the rippled, notched, and plain with no significant differences were found (Fig. 4). The total residue cutting of the notched disc consisted of one-third of partially cut while no partially cut was observed for the rippled disc. As for the plain disc, roughly a quarter of the total residue cutting was partially cut. The shallow working depth had a numerically higher residue cutting rate than the deep depth: 32.8% versus 22.2%. One in every four residue tracers being cut was partially cut when the discs were operated at the shallow depth. As a comparison, less than one residue was partially cut for every ten residue tracers being cut at the deep depth. The results suggested that the most effective treatment in cutting residues was the rippled disc at the shallow depth. On average, only 27.5% of the residue tracers were being cut, either partially or completely, by the discs. Partial cuts tended to be pushed into the soil and damaged by the discs. The majority of the remaining residue was pushed aside by the discs through disturbed soil.
Figure 4

Residue cutting including completely cut and partially cut of different discs at different working depths; means followed by different lower case letters or upper case letters are significantly different according to Tukey’s test at the significance level of 0.05; error bars are standard deviations.

Full size image

The effects of disc type and working depth on the residue cutting efficiency of the discs differed from the previous studies of disc openers. For example, the plain disc was found to have a much higher residue cutting efficiency than the notched and serrated discs and the efficiency increased as the working depth increased17. The primary cause of the difference was due to the difference in residue cutting mechanism between the angled tillage discs and relatively straight disc openers. The concaved discs disturbed a fair amount of soil ahead of the disc and relied on the edge to “hook” lying residues in order to cut them. Therefore, the rippled and notched discs had numerically higher residue cutting rates than the plain disc thanks to their hooking edges. The shallower the working depth, the less the soil disturbance and the higher the residue cutting efficiency is. On the other hand, a straight disc opener would ride over all possible residues on the path and penetrate the soil without causing significant disturbance to the seedbed. The difference in residue cutting effectiveness can also be accounted for in part by the difference in residue characteristics such as type, percent cover, and moisture content. For instance, wet rice residue with a moisture content of 41.4% at 2000 kg/ha15 versus dry corn stalk with a moisture content of 4.5% at 7500 kg/ha in this study. Previous studies have shown that the cutting performance of the disc openers was significantly affected by the mechanical properties of the residue26 and residue density17.
The numerically higher portion of surface residue being cut at the shallow depth was attributed to a smaller cutting angle. This cutting angle was the angle of absolute velocity vector acting on the residue with the vertical axis in Kushwaha et al.16, whose analytical model showed that the angle of absolute velocity vector for a disc is smaller at a shallower depth. The disc tended to cut or bend the residues at a smaller cutting angle, while the disc tended to push the residue ahead at a larger cutting angle. The notched disc had the numerically highest portion of partially cut among the three discs, which agreed with the results in Bianchini and Magalhaes21. Kushwaha et al.17 also observed that residue pieces were held into the notches and serrations of the discs instead of being cut, being thrown backward as the disc exited from the soil. More

We set out to disentangle the manifold and interacting drivers of fruit production of large, long-lived tropical canopy trees. We used two B. excelsa populations as models given the critical importance of this single species to ecosystem processes, Amazonian livelihoods, and tropical biodiversity conservation. Our findings uncovered that over 10 years, one site (Cachoeira) consistently generated production levels that were threefold higher than that of the other site (Filipinas). Fruit production variation at Cachoeira was also relatively constant at both individual and population levels compared to Filipinas. Yet as anticipated in the tropics (versus temperate regions) where low climate variability minimizes resource variation18, neither population exhibited masting behavior as indicated by synchrony (S).
Given that we hypothesized that fruit production would show similar patterns over time, and common driving variables, we expected weather and weather cues to play important roles in fruit production. Because our research sites are only ~ 30 km apart, we assumed that each population and individual tree experienced approximately the same weather and climatic cues. Our climate model indicated that more wet days during the narrow 3-month dry season prior to flowering resulted in increased fruit production. Furthermore, the model also indicated that when drier atmospheric conditions (represented by VAP) were present and extended beyond the dry season into the flowering period, fruit production tended to be reduced. Still, models that used the simple “year” variable to explain fruit production variation (versus multiple specific, albeit remote climate variables) had better statistical fit. This leads us to question what overall weather conditions might have caused the extremely low and highly variable production levels of 2017; in Filipinas, more than half of the trees did not produce any fruits (Fig. 1). Local Brazil nut harvesters also characterized 2017 as an exceptional nadir in production – a sentiment echoed in popular media across the Amazon basin19.
The year 2015 was a “Very Strong” El Niño year, which followed immediately on a “Weak” one (2014)20. These years relate to our 2017 production because of  > 15-month fruit maturation lag times. Such El Niño events yield sunny, dry conditions in our study region. Over the 10-year study, VAP for 2017 production was the lowest ranked (26.27 hPa), and 2016 was the second lowest (25.37 hPa) (SI Table S2), signaling back-to-back years of persistent low atmospheric moisture. While increases in solar radiation can boost forest productivity21,22, persistent dry conditions and higher accompanying temperatures induce tree stress23, and ultimately higher mortality24. As a canopy emergent, B. excelsa crowns are exposed to greater radiation levels and higher evaporative demand. Hence, they are predicted to be particularly sensitive to drought due to hydraulic stress25, potentially exacerbated by increased water column tension in such exceptionally tall trees23. Still, such large trees access stored groundwater via deep roots more than previously assumed26, and fluctuations in water supply can be moderated by internal storage in stems, roots and leaves27. It is unknown, however, the extent to which two successive El Niño years may have impacted groundwater recharge and storage, and aggravated overall tree stress. There is evidence that canopy trees are resilient to normal Amazonian dry seasons due to deep roots that access water stored from wet season precipitation3,28; yet they are more vulnerable to extended tropical droughts, as demonstrated by the higher rates of large tree, drought-related mortality29. Corlett23 suggested that this tall tree vulnerability can be attributed to the physiological challenges of transporting water from drying soil through lengthy water conduits to exposed leaves. B. excelsa demonstrates drought avoidance by losing leaves during the dry period, but only for a few days in our study region30, where deciduousness is unexceptional and average rainfall falls short of ~ 2000 mm expected for evergreen tropical forests31. Finally, drought inducement experiments have demonstrated that lower rainfall levels over time negatively affect tropical tree fruit production. Throughfall exclusion over a 4-year period had a cumulative negative effect on fruit production (− 12%) of a sub-canopy tropical Rubiaceae, but differences were only significant in 1 year32.
Delayed rainy season onset also may have influenced the extremely low 2017 fruit production. In our region, the rainy season typically begins in September, yet the key 6-month rainfall (DTF; June through November) period that influenced 2017 production was the lowest in our 10-year data set. Moreover, of the entire 117-year CRU data set, the 2017 DTF period was the 16th lowest on record (SI Table S2), indicating that rainy season onset was delayed beyond norms. Since 1979, there has been a delay in dry season end dates (or rainy season onset) and an increase in dry season length for southern Amazonia33. Grogan and Schulze34 reported that delayed rainy season onset had a negative effect on tropical canopy tree growth, but they did not track fecundity. Finally, negative correlations between fruit production and minimum temperatures during both DPF and DTF (dry season prior to, and through flowering, respectively), particularly in Cachoeira, are consistent with other tropical studies that have showed clear negative effects of high nighttime temperatures on tropical tree growth22. In sum, evidence suggests that dry, and perhaps warming, conditions may have produced cascading effects that compromised 2017 fruit production at both sites (Table S2). Still, Cachoeira responded better than Filipinas not only in 2017, but across all years, as indicated by highly significant site effects across models.
Given these results, we explored the role that site differences might play in fruit production. Previous studies have detected subtle differences in demographic structures at our sites, indicating the presence of smaller B. excelsa individuals in the Filipinas population, but without a clear attribution to ecological or socioeconomic factors9. While Cachoeira has a longer history of disturbance (i.e., low-intensity timber harvest), which could influence the dominance of B. excelsa, we lack evidence that this disturbance influences production. Despite close proximity, our sites are located in different watersheds, and are characterized by slightly different forest types and soil characteristics. Specifically, Cachoeira’s significantly higher levels of P and K (Table 1) are informative, as soil P has been positively linked to higher levels of B. excelsa production11,17. Costa35 showed that B. excelsa can be productive in acidic, less fertile soils, while suggesting that Ca is a key macronutrient for this species.
Site quality has been used extensively to explain and predict productivity across diverse forest types for decades36, and inclusion of more site variables (such as depth to water table) would likely yield improved explanations for Cachoeira’s comparatively superior production. Notwithstanding, individual tree differences, regardless of site, offer further fruit production insights. As with almost all trees, B. excelsa reproductive status and fruit production levels are explained by DBH12,16,37,38,39, with the most productive trees in the 100–150 cm DBH range11. Moreover, DBH for these trees is correlated with crown size17, which was a significant and positive explanatory variable for all our production models, although less so for large trees (≥ 100 cm DBH) in Cachoeira versus Filipinas (Table 2, Models 4a & b). Large crowns of individual trees imply greater photosynthetic capacity and sturdy physical structures that support carbohydrate and nutrient demands of the large B. excelsa fruits. Large-diameter trees with big crowns produce more fruits. Furthermore, these trees are tall; all exhibit dominant or co-dominant canopy positions, suggesting fairly unlimited access to light. Notably, while basal area growth was a significant predictor of fruit production in trees More

Given that elasmobranchs are well known for the rate at which they replace their teeth, it is perhaps surprising that anterior teeth are retained long enough for dietarily informative microwear textures to develop. Yet our results demonstrate that tooth microwear textures vary with diet in C. taurus, and show that DMTA can provide an additional, potentially powerful tool for dietary discrimination in elasmobranchs. Furthermore, recent analysis indicates that C. taurus mostly consume prey in one piece30, implying less interaction of teeth with prey than would the case in animals that process their food before swallowing. We predict that for elasmobranchs that bite their prey the relationship between diet and microwear texture will be even stronger than that reported here.
Sampling individuals with different diets reveals increases in PC 1 values that in turn correspond to changes in a number of different ISO texture parameters. In general terms, as noted above, there is a trend towards ‘rougher’ surfaces with increases in the proportion of elasmobranchs in C. taurus diets, and with increasing consumption of benthic elasmobranchs30,31,32 (which may be associated with an increase in the amount of sediment consumed with prey). The increase in variance of PC1 values may also reflect increased diversity of prey types30,31,32 in larger individuals. To a degree, the greater variance might reflect the greater difference between maximum development of ‘rough’ microwear texture in a tooth near the end of its functional life compared to a smooth, recently erupted tooth. Either way, our results indicate that microwear texture tracks diet, but more work will be required to tease apart these additional factors.
Our analyses indicate that the tooth microwear textures of Specimen 5, from a different geographic area to other specimens, and for which we have no dietary data, are closely comparable to those of samples 1, 2 and 3, in terms of both values and variances. On this basis we interpret specimen 5 to have had a diet dominated by fish. The larger size of this specimen (at ca. 335 cm, larger than any other specimens analysed) lends further support to the hypothesis that microwear texture is tracking diet, and not size. Our dietary predictions regarding C. taurus from this area could be tested using traditional stomach contents, or stable isotope analyses, but this is outside the scope of the present study.
Our results also suggest that application of DMTA to analysis of the diet of individual sharks will produce more reliable results if multiple teeth are sampled rather than a single tooth. Comparing the six teeth of the aquarium individuals (fed only fish) with six teeth sampled randomly from the wild individuals (which had more varied diets) revealed significant differences in every sub-sampling (Supplementary Table S5). However the number of parameters displaying a significant difference between wild and aquarium teeth varied, and fewer significant differences than were found than analyses comparing the aquarium teeth to multiple teeth from each wild individual. This suggests that analyses based on single isolated teeth rather than those from jaws, a situation that would commonly arise in analyses of fossil teeth, have the potential to detect differences between populations and species with different diets, but will be less sensitive than analyses based on multiple teeth per individual. To a certain extent, this will be offset in collections of isolated fossil teeth because the vast majority are teeth that were shed at the end of the functional cycle, so there will be much less sampling of recently erupted teeth with less well-developed microwear textures. (Due to the rate of tooth replacement in elasmobranchs, the number of teeth shed by an individual in its lifetime outnumber the number of teeth in the individuals jaw at time of death by several orders of magnitude).
Drawing wider comparisons with microwear texture analyses in other groups of vertebrates, of the relationship between diet and 3D microwear texture based on ISO parameters, the number of parameters that differ between samples of C. taurus is larger than most previous studies, probably due to greater differences in material properties of food between the samples compared. Wild C. taurus consume a wider variety of prey than aquarium fed C. taurus. Wild individuals consume ‘harder’ prey items, whilst interacting with the natural environment. A wild individual consuming a benthic elasmobranch will have to bite through dermal denticles, a larger cartilage skeleton and inevitably will ingest some sediment during the process. In contrast aquarium individuals are largely fed whole and partial fish within the water column, a much ‘softer’ diet. Comparison of this study to others analysing vertebrate diet, repeatedly display significant differences in certain parameters when comparing groups with harder/softer diets. Purnell and Darras23 found that Sdq, Sdr, Vmc, Vvv, Sk and Sa discriminated best between the specialist durophagous and more opportunist durophagous fish in their study (based on ANOVA and PCA), with these parameters also differing between populations of the opportunist durophage Archosargus probatocephalus with different proportions of hard prey in their diets. Of these parameters, Sk, Sa, Vmc, and Vvv produce pairwise differences between C. taurus samples (between 1 and 4). These parameters capture aspects of surface heights and the volumes of material within the core and voids in valleys, respectively (Supplementary Table S1 online). All increase in value as the proportion of elasmobranchs in the diet increases, the same as the pattern of increase with durophagy seen in Archosargus probatocephalus and Anarhichas lupus23. Vmc, Vvv, and Sk were also found to increase with the amount of hard-shelled prey in the diet of cichlids24. This means that ‘harder’ diets produce tooth surface textures with greater core depth and an increase in the volumes of core material and valleys. In short ‘harder’ diets produce rougher tooth surfaces.
This conclusion is also supported by a recent DMTA study on reptiles29, which exhibit significant overlap with sharks in the parameter trends correlating with ‘harder’ diets. Of the parameters correlating with increasing PC 1 values in sharks, parameters correlated with increasing dietary ‘hardness’ in reptiles include those capturing aspects of texture height (Sa, Sq, S5z), the number of peaks (Spk), and the depth, void volume and material volume of the core (Sk, Vvc, Vmc). Once again ‘harder’ diets produce rougher tooth surfaces.
Other studies, although focussed on terrestrial rather than aquatic vertebrates, have found similar patterns. Vmc, Vvc, Vvv, and Sa increase with more abrasive diets in grazing ungulate mammals34; Vmc, Vvv and Sk increase with increasingly ‘hard’ prey in insectivorous bats21. Unlike other studies, the latter found Sa (the average surface height) to decrease with harder diets26. A recent study of bats and moles35 found that, like sharks, increasing the ‘hardness’ of the prey creates rougher tooth surfaces that can be defined by increases in Sa, Vmc, VVc values (amongst others) and a decrease in Sds values (amongst others). More

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