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Composition of chemical constituents and bacterial communities in AGS and feces indicates separate, unique odor profiles
The gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analyses revealed that AGS volatiles of wild and captive pandas were comprised of a multicomponent blend of 30–50 chemical compounds, including fatty acids, aldehydes, ketones, aliphatic ethers, amides, aromatics, alcohols, steroids and squalene (Fig. 2a and Supplementary Table S2). These compounds are typical components of chemosignals across species due to their volatility, detectability and other characteristics facilitating chemoreception [3, 26, 32]. By contrast, feces contained mostly fatty acid ethyl ester, and a small number and quantity of fatty acids, amides, steroids and indole (Fig. 2b and Supplementary Table S3). Our results show that the relative abundance of steroids, aldehydes and fatty acids were remarkably higher in AGS than in feces (Fig. 3a), and the number of chemical components of aldehydes, fatty acids, and ketones in AGS was also significantly higher than found in feces (Fig. 3b). These results indicate that the chemical constituents of AGS are much better suited for chemosignaling than those from feces.
Fig. 2: Representative ion chromatograms of samples in giant pandas.

a Anogenital gland secretions (AGS). b Feces.

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Fig. 3: Differences in chemical compounds of anogenital gland secretions (AGS) and feces in giant pandas, and the differences in microbial communities, KEGG and contribution bacteria for lipid metabolism.

a A heat map of the mean relative abundance of the chemical compounds. b A heat map of the number chemical components. Differences in the microbial communities as a function of providence (captive/wild) and source (feces/AGS) at the c phylum and d genus level. e PCoA clustering results of samples from different groups. f Hierarchical clustering analysis of the samples, clearly indicating two branches for AGS and fecal samples. g Six differentially represented pathways in lipid metabolism and the Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) score. h Prevalence of enzymes involved in lipid metabolism as a function of phylum and family in AGS of giant pandas. i The contribution of different bacteria at genus level to lipid metabolism. WPF: wild panda feces, CPF: captive panda feces, WPAG: wild panda AG, CPAG: captive panda AG.

Full size image

The composition of bacterial communities in AGS and feces was markedly different at the phylum (Fig. 3c) and genus levels (Fig. 3d), based on taxonomic classifications of predicted gene sequences. Principal Co-ordinates Analysis (PCoA) (Fig. 3e) and hierarchical clustering analyses (Fig. 3f) revealed cluster patterns based on provenance (captive/wild) and sample type (AGS/fecal). Notably, the microbiota composition of AGS from different individuals or living environments was more similar than were AGS and fecal samples from the same individuals. Actinobacteria (X2 = 26.33, P  More

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Affiliations

Ecosystem Dynamics and Forest Management Group, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
Cornelius Senf & Rupert Seidl

Institute for Silviculture, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
Cornelius Senf & Rupert Seidl

Berchtesgaden National Park, Berchtesgaden, Germany
Rupert Seidl

Authors
Cornelius Senf

Rupert Seidl

Corresponding author
Correspondence to Cornelius Senf. More

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Characteristics of the NMs
Commercially available spherical (10, 60, and 100 nm) and rod-shaped (10 × 45 nm and 50 × 100 nm) citrate-coated Au-NMs from Nanopartz (USA) were characterized in Milli-Q (MQ) water in terms of particle size and morphology using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (Supplementary Fig. 1). The physicochemical properties of the Au-NMs in MQ water are summarized in Supplementary Table 1. A negative zeta potential (a measure of colloidal dispersion electrostatic stability) was observed for all Au-NMs and ranged from −21 to −25 mV in MQ water and from −17 to −19 mV in the algal exposure medium (without algae). The stability of the particles against dissolution and agglomeration in the algal exposure medium without algae was monitored throughout the exposure duration (72 h). The dissolved fraction of the Au-NMs was More