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Impact of Clothianidin on melanization and clotting
Insects: honey bees used in this study were from Apis mellifera ligustica colonies, maintained in the experimental apiary of the University of Napoli “Federico II”, Department of Agricultural Sciences. Larvae and newly emerged bees used in all the experiments were obtained from brood frames taken from the experimental hives and kept in an incubator at 34 °C, 80% relative humidity for 12 h.
Implantation experiment: 3rd instar larvae were first fed with 0.05, 0.01 ppm and no Clothianidin, while adults were treated with 20.0, 10.0, 5.0, 2.0 ng/bee and no Clothianidin, as already published4 (5 individuals for each treatment for both larvae and adults). In order to evaluate the encapsulation and melanization index12 a piece of transparent, nylon fluorocarbon coated fishing line (Ø = 0.08 mm; Asso Fishing Line), sterilized under UV light for 24 h, was inserted into the hemocelic cavity on 4th body segment of 5th instar larvae and into the haemocoelic cavity of adults through the membrane between the 3rd and 4th abdominal tergite. After 24 h, the implants were removed and subjected to image analysis, using GIMP version 2.8 (GNU Image Manipulation Program; www.gimp.org). In adult bees the clotting index was also analyzed by evaluating, after 24 h, the healing of a wound generated by piercing the honeybee integument inter-membrane between the 3rd and 4th abdominal tergite, using a sterile entomological needle. The rest of body was immediately stored at –80 °C for the subsequent molecular analysis. The experiment was repeated 3 times.
Immune genes expression and DWV quantification: in order to assess the relative expression of Amel102 and Dorsal 1A as affected by Clothianidin treatment, two groups of 4th instar larvae (n = 100 per group) received 0.01 ppm of a Clothianidin-treated diet or a clean diet, respectively, as detailed below. After 24 and 72 h from feeding, 15 larvae for each experimental group were sampled and stored at –80 °C for subsequent analysis.
RNA extraction, DWV quantification and relative gene expression data analysis were performed according to already published protocols12. Briefly, total RNA was isolated from individual honey bees using TRIzol reagent (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The quantity and the quality of total RNA were assessed using Varioskan Flash spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific).
Differential relative expression of Amel102 and Dorsal 1A was measured by one-step qRT-PCR, using the Power SYBR Green RNA-to-Ct 1-Step Kit (Applied Biosystems, Carlsbad, CA, USA), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Each reaction was prepared in 20 μL and contained 10 μL qRT-PCR mix 2X, 100 nM of forward and reverse primers, 0.16 μL of 125X RT enzyme mix, DEPC treated water and 50 ng of total RNA. All samples were analyzed in duplicate on a Step One Real Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems). Two reference genes, β-actin and rps5, were used as endogenous control for RNA loading. Relative gene expression data were analyzed using the ∆∆Ct method.
The quantification of DWV genome copies was performed using the Power SYBR Green RNA-to-Ct 1-Step Kit (Applied Biosystems) as described above. Titers of DWV were determined by relating the Ct values of unknown samples to an established standard curve. The standard curve was established by plotting the logarithm of seven 10-fold dilutions of a starting solution containing 21.9 ng of plasmid DNA pCR II-TOPO (TOPO-TA cloning) with a DWV insert (from 21.9 ng to 21.9 fg), against the corresponding Ct value as the average of three repetitions. The PCR efficiency (E = 107.5%) was calculated based on the slope and coefficient of correlation (R2) of the standard curve, according to the following formula: E = 10(−1/slope) − 1 (slope = −3.155, y-intercept = 41.84, R2 = 0.999). All primers used are shown in Supplementary Table 1.
Impact of Clothianidin on the reproduction of Varroa destructor
The artificial diet used for feeding 4th instar larvae (L4) contained D-glucose (9%), D-fructose (9%), yeast extract (2%) and royal jelly (50%)37. Fresh royal jelly was bought from a local supplier. Chemical analysis of royal jelly carried out by the supplier revealed no acaricides, pesticides or antibiotic contaminants. Before use, royal jelly was treated with γ-rays (25 kGy) to eliminate any possible microbial contamination.
A group of larvae received 0.01 ppm of Clothianidin-treated diet, while another group of larvae (control) received a clean diet. To prepare 100 g of Clothianidin-treated diet, 5 mg of Clothianidin were dissolved into 500 μL of acetone (solution A); then, 100 μL of solution A were diluted in 9900 μL of acetone (solution B); finally, 10 μL of solution B were dissolved in 990 μL of deionised water, which was used for the preparation of the diet.
After preparing the diet, 3–4 combs containing larvae of different ages were selected from the experimental apiary of the University of Udine, Italy. Fourth instar larvae (L4) were manually collected and transferred into sterile Petri dishes (Ø = 9 cm) containing 15 g of clean or Clothianidin-treated diet. Each Petri dish hosted 15–20 L4, for a total of 80–100 L4 per treatment per replication. Larvae were maintained in Petri dishes for 24 h under controlled conditions (35 °C, 90% R.H., dark).
Mites were collected from brood cells capped in the preceding 15 h. To this aim, in the afternoon of the day preceding the experiment, when the artificial feeding of larvae was carried out, the capped brood cells of several combs were marked. The following morning, the combs were transferred to the lab and the unmarked cells, that had been capped overnight, were manually unsealed. The combs were then placed in an incubator at 35 °C and 75% R.H., where larvae and mites spontaneously emerged.
In the meantime, the larvae fed with Clothianidin (or not) that had reached the 5th instar (L5) were cleaned from the larval food and transferred into gelatin capsules (Agar Scientific ltd., Ø = 6.5 mm) with 1 mite38. Infested bees were maintained in a climatic chamber under controlled conditions (35 °C, 75% R.H.) for 12 days until eclosion. From 58 to 77 L5 per experimental group per replicate were infested, for a total of 204 and 210 individuals per experimental group.
Daily, dead larvae were removed and counted. Upon eclosion, mite mortality and reproduction (i.e. fertility and fecundity) were measured by inspecting, in total, 111 and 120 mite infested honey bees fed or not with Clothianidin during the larval stage, respectively. Once separated from the infesting mite, 28 and 27 newly emerged adult bees in total, fed or not with Clothianidin during the larval stage, respectively, were stored at –80 °C for subsequent analysis aiming at assessing DWV load. The experiment was replicated 3 times.
Modeling of Varroa population as affected by Clothianidin
In order to test whether the effect of Clothianidin on Varroa reproduction could account for the higher mite infestation observed in colonies exposed to Clothianidin, under field conditions, we compared the data resulting from a simplified discrete time model of Varroa population with those obtained from the literature13.
At each time point, our simplified discrete time model calculates Varroa population as follows:

Varroa mites =Varroa mites + Varroa born − Varroa dead

Varroa born = (Varroa mites*proportion of mites in brood cells*proportion of mites producing viable offspring)/length of reproducing phase

Varroa dead = (Varroa mites*proportion of mites in brood cells*mortality of mites in brood cells + Varroa mites*(1 − proportion of mites in brood cells)*mortality of phoretic mites)/length of reproducing phase

Parameters were derived from published studies20,39, as detailed in the Supplementary Data File. The proportion of treated mites producing viable offspring was calculated according to the results of our experiment (i.e., proportion of treated mites producing viable offspring = proportion of control mites producing viable offspring +23%). Since, the model allowed to estimate the size of Varroa population in treated and control colonies, whereas field studies reported the number of mites on bottom boards13, these latter data were converted into colony infestation according to a standard coefficient derived from literature40.
The model above was used to follow the number of mites in two experimental groups (treated and control) for the duration of the field experiment that was used as a reference. More details can be found in the Supplementary Data file.
Statistical analysis
The statistical tests that were used to assess significance and the relevant data are reported along the corresponding results in the Supplementary Data file. Briefly, data about melanization, encapsulation, clotting, DWV infection level, and gene expression were analyzed by means of non-parametric methods (i.e., Mann–Whitney U tests in case of two samples and Kruskal–Wallis for more), the proportion of reproducing mites in different experimental groups was tested using the Mantel–Haenszel test, clotting in adult bees exposed to different doses of Clothianidin was tested with Spearman’s correlation. If necessary, probabilities were adjusted using the Bonferroni correction. Tests were performed with Excel (version 14.3.5).
Reporting summary
Further information on research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article. More

Affiliations

International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER), Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
Shigenori Fujikawa, Roman Selyanchyn & Toyoki Kunitake

NanoMembrane Technologies, Inc., 4-1, Kyudai-Shimachi, Nishi-Ku, Fukuoka, 819-0388, Japan
Shigenori Fujikawa & Toyoki Kunitake

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Center for Molecular Systems (CMS), Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishiku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
Shigenori Fujikawa

Authors
Shigenori Fujikawa

Roman Selyanchyn

Toyoki Kunitake

Corresponding author
Correspondence to Shigenori Fujikawa. More

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We collected data from all US states where school vaccine exemption information was freely available from the Department of Health website in any format. We were able to locate that data in 24 states (see Table 1 for a list of states included). Within these states, the number of years available varied relatively widely, between 19 years in California and a single year in 6 states. The most represented year in our dataset was 2017 (corresponding to school year 2017–2018). Because the dataset was compiled in June-July 2019, we note that it is likely that additional data for more recent years may be available, or that data may have become available in additional states not included in our dataset.
Table 1 Exemption data reporting varies widely across states.
Full size table

The data format varied widely between states, and exemptions were reported either as a number of exemptions or as a percentage of the enrolled students. We have elected to use number of students rather than percentages, and have transformed data as needed. For most states included in our dataset, the data are provided at the county level. In several states (Arizona, Colorado, Illinois, Maine, Michigan, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Oregon, and Washington), the data was provided at the school level, which we aggregated to the county.
Additional data processing was necessary in some cases. In Virginia, data was provided by school name, but county or city information was not included. We used a list of public and private schools to match school names with their respective county using fuzzy matching (with the ‘fuzzywuzzy’ Python package) with an 80% matching requirement. Our algorithm was unable to find a suitable match for between 3.8% and 6.8% of schools (depending on year), and these schools were not included in the final counts at the county level. Similarly, in Idaho, data at the school level included city information but county was not provided. We first matched city and county names, before aggregating the exemption data at the county level. Finally in New York state, exemptions were provided as percentages at the school level but enrollment information was not included. We obtained enrollment for public and private schools separately from the New York State Education Department, and used the school unique code to calculate exemption number from enrollment and exemption percentages. We then aggregated these numbers at the county level.
States reported data for exemptions based on varying definitions, so we selected data records based on data availability to make the data comparable across states. We aimed to achieve parsimonious definitions of total medical exemptions (Fig. 1a), total non-medical exemptions (Fig. 1b), and total exemptions (Fig. 1c), which includes both types of exemptions. We define medical exemptions as reported total medical exemptions. In Florida, permanent medical exemptions were reported separately from temporary medical exemptions, so permanent medical exemptions was chosen to represent total medical exemptions. To define total non-medical exemptions, we considered the state law regarding non-medical exemptions and the data availability. If the state reported total aggregated non-medical exemptions, that was selected as total non-medical exemptions. If the state reported only religious exemptions and only allows religious exemptions, that was selected as total non-medical exemptions. If the state reported only religious exemptions, but also allows philosophical exemptions, that was considered missing data. If the state allows philosophical exemptions and only reports philosophical exemptions, that was selected as total non-medical exemptions, as the state may not differentiate religious from philosophical. If the state allows philosophical exemptions and reports both religious and philosophical exemptions separately, these values were summed for total non-medical exemptions. To define total exemptions, if the state reported a total exemptions value, this value was used. If the state did not report a total exemptions value, but reported values for total medical exemptions and total non-medical exemptions, as defined above, these were summed for total exemptions. If the state was missing either medical or non-medical exemptions, but reported the total number of students with completed vaccinations, the total exemptions was the difference between the number of students enrolled and the number of students completed. This classification process is visualized in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1

Exemptions were classified by type to standardize reporting. Exemptions were classified as medical exemptions (a), non-medical exemptions (b), and total exemptions (c) to standardize reporting across states with different values reported.

Full size image

We also considered disease-specific exemptions reports. If a state reported the number of exemptions for a vaccine specific to a given infection, that value was used. If the state did not report exemptions, but did provide the total number complete for that disease, the difference between the enrolled students and the completed students was used. For pertussis-specific vaccination, we used DTaP exemptions where available, and TDaP exemptions where DTaP was not available. For measles-specific vaccination, if separate reports were available for measles, mumps, and rubella, the value for measles was used. If measles was not available, then the mumps or rubella exemptions were used, if available.
The data in the figures is only data reported for kindergartens in states where kindergarten-specific data was available, or K-12 data in states where kindergarten-specific data was not reported. States reported age groups heterogeneously, and data by other age groups is available in the data file. We note that Oregon reports kindergarten-specific data in 2014–2015, then K-12 data in 2016–2018. More

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