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Chlorine residual impacted discolouration
Unexpectedly, flushing of the High-chlorine system (by incrementally increasing the flow rate) produced a significantly greater discolouration response (assessed via turbidity) than the Medium- or Low-chlorine systems across all stages of flushing, of both tests (Fig. 2). Compared to the other regimes, the High-chlorine system also had a greater final concentration of iron (known to be associated with discolouration) at the end of Flush 1 and a greater rate of iron mobilisation during Flush 2 (Fig. 2). Conversely, the Low-chlorine regime consistently resulted in the lowest impact on water quality with the lowest discolouration and metal concentrations. Even after just 28 days of growth, material was mobilised from the High-chlorine regime at sufficient volumes to approach or breach the water quality standards for discolouration and iron concentrations (Fig. 2 and Supplementary Table 1). This contradicts the common perception of residual chlorine impacts on water quality and also studies of cast iron pipes, which suggest increasing oxidant concentration (disinfectant or dissolved oxygen) in drinking water decreases iron release26,27. Although surprising, High-chlorine repeatedly resulted in the greatest discolouration and Low-chlorine the least; as observed during the flushing of test 1, test 2 (Fig. 2) and preliminary tests (Supplementary Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Discolouration responses to elevated shear stress during the flushing of the chlorine regimes.

Discolouration was determined primarily by a Turbidity (506 ≤ n ≤ 1091) with consideration of b Iron (n = 3) and c Manganese (n = 3) concentrations. Flush1 refers to the flushing phase of test 1, Flush2 indicates data from the flushing phase of test 2. Data normalised to well-mixed concentrations (0.09 Pa) of each system, mean ± standard deviation plotted. Linear regressions in each plot had R2 values of a 0.82 ≤ R2 ≤ 0.99, b 0.89 ≤ R2 ≤ 1.00 and c 0.76 ≤ R2 ≤ 0.98. High-chlorine: metal concentrations only available for final flushing step for Flush1. Chlorine regimes differed in their turbidity (ANCOVA on raw data: F ≥ 2869, p  More

LX3 enhances larval pathogen eradication by antibiotics
Prophylactic administration of OTC to honey bees is a common practice in beekeeping for the prevention of AFB. To evaluate the efficacy of this long-standing apiculture management strategy, we monitored a 2-week treatment regimen with OTC under natural field conditions in honey bee hives experiencing low-grade chronic infection with P. larvae (Fig. 1a). Using a qPCR-based approach to enumerate pathogen load, P. larvae abundance was found to be significantly lower in honey bee larvae (primary target of AFB) at week 1 and week 2 of OTC treatment (Kruskal–Wallis with Dunn’s multiple comparisons, P = 0.0071 and P = 0.0005, respectively) compared to baseline levels at day 0 (Fig. 1b). In contrast, no observable differences in P. larvae abundance were found in adult honey bees (active vector of AFB) at any time point during this treatment (Kruskal–Wallis with Dunn’s multiple comparisons, P = 0.9999, P = 0.6367, respectively; Fig. 1c).
Fig. 1: LX3 enhances larval pathogen eradication by antibiotics.

Experimental hives were subjected to standard antibiotic treatment with oxytetracycline (OTC) for 2 weeks and then supplemented for 4 weeks with either pollen patties containing LX3 (LX3) or pollen patties containing vehicle (VEH). No treatment control (NTC) hives received no further treatment after OTC. a Schematic diagram outlining the experimental design. b, c Molecular-based quantification of P. larvae in honey bee larvae (whole body) and adults (dissected abdomen) collected just prior to the start of OTC exposure (A.0), and then after 1 (A.1) and 2 (A.2) weeks of exposure. Data are depicted as median ± 95% confidence intervals (Kruskal–Wallis with Dunn’s multiple comparisons) at different time points. Each data point represents either one individual (adults) or three pooled individuals (larvae) sampled equally from a total of n = 6 hives. d, e Molecular-based quantification of P. larvae in larvae (whole body) and adults (dissected whole abdomens) at the start of the supplementation period (S.0; corresponding to 3 days post A.2 time point), and then after 2 (S.2) and 4 (S.4) weeks. Data are depicted as mean ± standard deviation (two-way ANOVA with Sidak’s multiple comparisons) at different time points with each data point representing either one individual (adults) or three pooled individuals (larvae) sampled equally from n = 4 hives per treatment group. f, g Capped brood counts during OTC treatment (n = 6 hives) and subsequent supplementation period (n = 4 hives per treatment group). Data represents the median (line in box), IQR (box), and minimum/maximum (whiskers) of relative change in brood counts normalized by hive. Statistics shown for one-way and two-way ANOVA, respectively, with Sidak’s multiple comparisons for both. **P  More

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