Bradley, C. A. & Altizer, S. Urbanization and the ecology of wildlife diseases. Trends Ecol. Evol. 22, 95–102 (2007).
Google Scholar
Aronson, M. F. J. et al. A global analysis of the impacts of urbanization on bird and plant diversity reveals key anthropogenic drivers. Proc. R. Soc. B 281, 20133330 (2014).
Google Scholar
Nielsen, A. B., Van Den Bosch, M., Maruthaveeran, S. & Van Den Bosch, C. K. Species richness in urban parks and its drivers: A review of empirical evidence. Urban Ecosyst. 17, 305–327 (2014).
Google Scholar
Ives, C. D. et al. Cities are hotspots for threatened species. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 25, 117–126 (2016).
Google Scholar
Luck, G. W., Davidson, P., Boxall, D. & Smallbone, L. Relations between urban bird and plant communities and human well-being and connection to nature. Conserv. Biol. 25, 816–826 (2011).
Google Scholar
Soga, M. & Gaston, K. J. Extinction of experience: the loss of human–nature interactions. Front. Ecol. Environ. 14, 94–101 (2016).
Google Scholar
Dean, J., van Dooren, K. & Weinstein, P. Does biodiversity improve mental health in urban settings?. Med. Hypotheses 76, 877–880 (2011).
Google Scholar
Knight, A. T. et al. Knowing but not doing: Selecting priority conservation areas and the research-implementation gap. Conserv. Biol. 22, 610–617 (2008).
Google Scholar
Waldron, A. et al. Reductions in global biodiversity loss predicted from conservation spending. Nature 551, 364–367 (2017).
Google Scholar
Caro, T. M. Conservation by Proxy: Indicator, Umbrella, Keystone, Flagship and Other Surrogate Species (Island Press, 2010).
Sergio, F., Newton, I. & Marchesi, L. Top predators and biodiversity. Nature 236, 192 (2005).
Google Scholar
Burgas, D., Byholm, P. & Parkkima, T. Raptors as surrogates of biodiversity along a landscape gradient. J. Appl. Ecol. 51, 786–794 (2014).
Google Scholar
Sergio, F., Newton, I., Marchesi, L. & Pedrini, P. Ecologically justified charisma: Preservation of top predators delivers biodiversity conservation. J. Appl. Ecol. 43, 1049–1055 (2006).
Google Scholar
Sergio, F. et al. Top predators as conservation tools: Ecological rationale, assumptions, and efficacy. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 39, 1–19 (2008).
Google Scholar
Sergio, F. Raptor monitoring: Challenges and benefits. Bird Study 65, S3–S3 (2018).
Google Scholar
Millsap, B. A., Cooper, M. E. & Holroyd, G. Legal considerations. In Raptor Research and Management Techniques (eds Bird, D. M. & Bildstein, K. L.) 365–382 (Hancock House Publishers, 2007).
Maciorowski, G., Jankowiak, Ł, Sparks, T. H., Polakowski, M. & Tryjanowski, P. Biodiversity hotspots at a small scale: The importance of eagles’ nests to many other animals. Ecology 102, e03220 (2021).
Google Scholar
Natsukawa, H. Raptor breeding sites as a surrogate for conserving high avian taxonomic richness and functional diversity in urban ecosystems. Ecol. Indic. 119, 106874 (2020).
Google Scholar
Natsukawa, H. Raptor breeding sites indicate high taxonomic and functional diversities of wintering birds in urban ecosystems. Urban For. Urban Green. 60, 127066 (2021).
Google Scholar
Sergio, F., Newton, I. & Marchesi, L. Top predators and biodiversity: Much debate, few data. J. Appl. Ecol. 45, 992–999 (2008).
Google Scholar
Estrada, C. G. & Rodríguez-Estrella, R. In the search of good biodiversity surrogates: Are raptors poor indicators in the Baja California Peninsula desert?. Anim. Conserv. 19, 360–368 (2016).
Google Scholar
Kenward, R. E. The Goshawk (T&A D Poyser, 2006).
Manning, A. D., Fischer, J. & Lindenmayer, D. B. Scattered trees are keystone structures–implications for conservation. Biol. Conserv. 132, 311–321 (2006).
Google Scholar
Ozanne, C. M. P. et al. Biodiversity meets the atmosphere: A global review of forest canopies. Science 301, 183–186 (2003).
Google Scholar
Yan, Z. et al. Impervious surface area is a key predictor for urban plant diversity in a city undergone rapid urbanization. Sci. Total Environ. 650, 335–342 (2019).
Google Scholar
Atauri, J. A., De Pablo, C. L., De Agar, P. M., Schmitz, M. F. & Pineda, F. D. Effects of management on understory diversity in the forest ecosystems of Northern Spain. Environ. Manag. 34, 819–828 (2004).
Google Scholar
Martín-Queller, E., Gil-Tena, A. & Saura, S. Species richness of woody plants in the landscapes of Central Spain: The role of management disturbances, environment and non-stationarity. J. Veg. Sci. 22, 238–250 (2011).
Google Scholar
Rodriguez, S. A., Kennedy, P. L. & Parker, T. H. Timber harvest and tree size near nests explains variation in nest site occupancy but not productivity in northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis). For. Ecol. Manage. 374, 220–229 (2016).
Google Scholar
Rosich, J. et al. Northern Goshawk breeding sites indicate the presence of mature forest in Mediterranean pinewoods. For. Ecol. Manag. 479, 118602 (2021).
Google Scholar
Natsukawa, H., Ichinose, T. & Higuchi, H. Factors affecting breeding-site selection of Northern Goshawks at two spatial scales in urbanized areas. J. Raptor Res. 51, 417–428 (2017).
Google Scholar
Natsukawa, H. et al. Forest cover and open land drive the distribution and dynamics of the breeding sites for urban-dwelling Northern Goshawks. Urban For. Urban Green. 53, 126732 (2020).
Google Scholar
Boal, C. W. & Dykstra, C. R. Urban Raptors: Ecology and Conservation of Birds of Prey in Cities (Island Press, 2018).
Google Scholar
Burgas, D., Ovaskainen, O., Blanchet, F. G. & Byholm, P. The ghost of the hawk: Top predator shaping bird communities in space and time. Front. Ecol. Evol. 9, 638039 (2021).
Google Scholar
Byholm, P., Gunko, R., Burgas, D. & Karell, P. Losing your home: Temporal changes in forest landscape structure due to timber harvest accelerate Northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) nest stand losses. Ornis Fenn. 97, 1–11 (2020).
Ozaki, K. et al. A mechanistic approach to evaluation of umbrella species as conservation surrogates. Conserv. Biol. 20, 1507–1515 (2006).
Google Scholar
Santangeli, A. et al. Voluntary non-monetary approaches for implementing conservation. Biol. Conserv. 197, 209–214 (2016).
Google Scholar
Kamal, S., Grodzińska-Jurczak, M. & Brown, G. Conservation on private land: A review of global strategies with a proposed classification system. J. Environ. Plan. Manage. 58, 576–597 (2015).
Google Scholar
Iwai, Y. Forestry and the Forest Industry in Japan (UBC Press, 2002).
Sirakaya, A., Cliquet, A. & Harris, J. Ecosystem services in cities: Towards the international legal protection of ecosystem services in urban environments. Ecosyst. Serv. 29, 205–212 (2018).
Google Scholar
Coad, L. et al. Widespread shortfalls in protected area resourcing undermine efforts to conserve biodiversity. Front. Ecol. Environ. 17, 259–264 (2019).
Google Scholar
Kumar, N., Jhala, Y. V., Qureshi, Q., Gosler, A. G. & Sergio, F. Human-attacks by an urban raptor are tied to human subsidies and religious practices. Sci. Rep. 9, 1–10 (2019).
Mak, B., Francis, R.A. & Chadwick, M.A. Living in the concrete jungle: A review and socio-ecological perspective of urban raptor habitat quality in Europe. Urban Ecosyst. 21 (2021).
Demographia. Demographia World Urban Areas, 16th annual edition. Available: http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf. Date of access February 20, 2021 (2020).
Yang, J., Yan, P., He, R. & Song, X. Exploring land-use legacy effects on taxonomic and functional diversity of woody plants in a rapidly urbanizing landscape. Landsc. Urban Plan. 162, 92–103 (2017).
Google Scholar
Spellerberg, I. F. & Fedor, P. J. A tribute to Claude Shannon (1916–2001) and a plea for more rigorous use of species richness, species diversity and the ‘Shannon–Wiener’Index. Glob. Ecol. Biogeog. 12, 177–179 (2003).
Google Scholar
McKinney, M. L. Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol. Conserv. 127, 247–260 (2006).
Google Scholar
R Development Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2020).
Oksanen, J. et al. Vegan: Community ecology package. R package version 2, 5–5 (2019).
Zuur, A. F., Ieno, E. N., Walker, N., Saveliev, A. A. & Smith, G. M. Mixed effects models and extensions in ecology with R. Mixed Effects Models and Extensions in Ecology with R (Springer, 2009).
Burnham, K. P. & Anderson, D. R. Model Selection and Multimodel Inference: a Practical Information-Theoretic Approach (Springer, 2002).
Google Scholar
Dormann, C. F. et al. Collinearity: A review of methods to deal with it and a simulation study evaluating their performance. Ecography 36, 27–46 (2013).
Google Scholar
Betts, M. G., Diamond, A. W., Forbes, G. J., Villard, M. A. & Gunn, J. S. The importance of spatial autocorrelation, extent and resolution in predicting forest bird occurrence. Ecol. Model. 191, 197–224 (2006).
Google Scholar
Moran, P. A. P. Notes on continuous stochastic phenomena. Biometrika 37, 17–23 (1950).
Google Scholar
Dormann, C. F. et al. Methods to account for spatial autocorrelation in the analysis of species distributional data: A review. Ecography 30, 609–628 (2007).
Google Scholar
Harrell, F. E. rms: Regression Modeling Strategies. R package version 6.0–1 (2020).
Bivand, R. & Piras, G. Comparing implementations of estimation methods for spatial econometrics. J. Stat. Softw. 63, 1–36 (2015).
Source: Ecology - nature.com
