Arrhenius, O. Species and area. J. Ecol. 9, 95–99 (1921).
MacArthur, R. H. & Wilson, E. O. The Theory of Island Biogeography (Princeton Univ. Press, 1967).
Rosenzweig, M. L. Species Diversity in Space and Time (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995).
Smith, A. B., Sandel, B., Kraft, N. J. B. & Carey, S. Characterizing scale‐dependent community assembly using the functional‐diversity–area relationship. Ecology 94, 2392–2402 (2013).
Google Scholar
Mazel, F. et al. Multifaceted diversity–area relationships reveal global hotspots of mammalian species, trait and lineage diversity. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 23, 836–847 (2014).
Google Scholar
Dias, R. A. et al. Species richness and patterns of overdispersion, clustering and randomness shape phylogenetic and functional diversity–area relationships in habitat islands. J. Biogeogr. 47, 1638–1648 (2020).
Pereira, H. M. et al. Scenarios for global biodiversity in the 21st century. Science 330, 1496–1501 (2010).
Google Scholar
Pimm, S. L., Russell, G. J., Gittleman, J. L. & Brooks, T. M. The future of biodiversity. Science 269, 347–350 (1995).
Google Scholar
Simberloff, D. in Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction (eds Whitmore, T. C. & Sayer, J. A.) 75–89 (Chapman & Hall, 1992).
Jordano, P. Chasing ecological interactions. PLoS Biol. 14, e1002559 (2016).
Google Scholar
Montoya, J. M., Woodward, G., Emmerson, M. C. & Solé, R. V. Press perturbations and indirect effects in real food webs. Ecology 90, 2426–2433 (2009).
Google Scholar
Lurgi, M., López, B. C., Montoya, J. M. & Lopez, B. C. Novel communities from climate change. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 367, 2913–2922 (2012).
Tylianakis, J. M., Tscharntke, T. & Lewis, O. T. Habitat modification alters the structure of tropical host–parasitoid food webs. Nature 445, 202–205 (2007).
Google Scholar
Montoya, J. M., Rodriguez, M. Á. & Hawkins, B. A. Food web complexity and higher-level ecosystem services. Ecol. Lett. 6, 587–593 (2003).
Reiss, J., Bridle, J. R., Montoya, J. M. & Woodward, G. Emerging horizons in biodiversity and ecosystem functioning research. Trends Ecol. Evol. 24, 505–514 (2009).
Google Scholar
Thompson, R. M. et al. Food webs: reconciling the structure and function of biodiversity. Trends Ecol. Evol. 27, 689–697 (2012).
Google Scholar
Cohen, J. E. & Newman, C. M. Community area and food-chain length: theoretical predictions. Am. Nat. 138, 1542–1554 (1991).
Schoener, T. W. Food webs from the small to the large: the Robert H. MacArthur Award lecture. Ecology 70, 1559–1589 (1989).
Post, D. M., Pace, M. L. & Hairston, N. G. Ecosystem size determines food-chain length in lakes. Nature 405, 1047–1049 (2000).
Google Scholar
Brose, U., Ostling, A., Harrison, K. & Martinez, N. D. Unified spatial scaling of species and their trophic interactions. Nature 428, 167–171 (2004).
Google Scholar
Galiana, N. et al. The spatial scaling of species interaction networks. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2, 782–790 (2018).
Google Scholar
Wood, S. A., Russell, R., Hanson, D., Williams, R. J. & Dunne, J. A. Effects of spatial scale of sampling on food web structure. Ecol. Evol. 5, 3769–3782 (2015).
Google Scholar
Pimm, S. L. et al. Food web patterns and their consequences. Nature 350, 669–674 (1991).
Martinez, N. D. Constant connectance in community food webs. Am. Nat. 139, 1208–1218 (1992).
Ings, T. C. et al. Ecological networks–beyond food webs. J. Anim. Ecol. 78, 253–69 (2009).
Google Scholar
Montoya, J. M. & Solé, R. V. Topological properties of food webs: from real data to community assembly models. Oikos 102, 614–622 (2003).
Drakare, S., Lennon, J. J. & Hillebrand, H. The imprint of the geographical, evolutionary and ecological context on species–area relationships. Ecol. Lett. 9, 215–227 (2006).
Google Scholar
Preston, F. W. Time and space and the variation of species. Ecology 41, 611–627 (1960).
Turner, W. R. & Tjørve, E. Scale-dependence in species–area relationships. Ecography 6, 721–730 (2005).
Bengtsson, J. Confounding variables and independent observations in comparative analyses of food webs. Ecology 75, 1282–1288 (1994).
Vermaat, J. E., Dunne, J. A. & Gilbert, A. J. Major dimensions in food-web structure properties. Ecology 90, 278–282 (2009).
Google Scholar
Dunne, J. A. et al. Parasites affect food web structure primarily through increased diversity and complexity. PLoS Biol. 11, e1001579 (2013).
Google Scholar
Poisot, T. & Gravel, D. When is an ecological network complex? Connectance drives degree distribution and emerging network properties. PeerJ 2, e251 (2014).
Google Scholar
Cohen, J. E. & Briand, Fredeiri Trophic links of community food webs. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 81, 4105–4109 (1984).
Google Scholar
Roslin, T., Várkonyi, G., Koponen, M., Vikberg, V. & Nieminen, M. Species–area relationships across four trophic levels—decreasing island size truncates food chains. Ecography 37, 443–453 (2014).
Holt, R. D., Lawton, J. H., Polis, G. A. & Martinez, N. D. Trophic rank and the species–area relationship. Ecology 80, 1495–1504 (1999).
Dunne, J. A., Williams, R. J. & Martinez, N. D. Food-web structure and network theory: the role of connectance and size. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 99, 12917–12922 (2002).
Google Scholar
Montoya, J. M., Pimm, S. L. & Solé, R. V. Ecological networks and their fragility. Nature 442, 259–264 (2006).
Google Scholar
James, A., Pitchford, J. W. & Plank, M. J. Disentangling nestedness from models of ecological complexity. Nature 487, 227–230 (2012).
Google Scholar
Valverde, S. et al. The architecture of mutualistic networks as an evolutionary spandrel. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2, 94–99 (2018).
Google Scholar
Valiente-Banuet, A. et al. Beyond species loss: the extinction of ecological interactions in a changing world. Funct. Ecol. 29, 299–307 (2015).
Janzen, D. H. The deflowering of central America. Nat. Hist. 83, 49–53 (1974).
Mendoza, M. & Araújo, M. B. Climate shapes mammal community trophic structures and humans simplify them. Nat. Commun. 10, 5197 (2019).
Google Scholar
Emer, C. et al. Seed dispersal networks in tropical forest fragments: area effects, remnant species, and interaction diversity. Biotropica 52, 81–89 (2020).
McWilliams, C., Lurgi, M., Montoya, J. M., Sauve, A. & Montoya, D. The stability of multitrophic communities under habitat loss. Nat. Commun. 10, 2322 (2019).
Google Scholar
McCann, K. S. The diversity–stability debate. Nature 405, 228–233 (2000).
Google Scholar
Fig, T., Mccann, K., Hastings, A. & Huxel, G. R. Weak trophic interactions and the balance of nature. Nature 395, 794–798 (1998).
Pimm, S. L. & Lawton, J. H. Are food webs divided into compartments? J. Anim. Ecol. 49, 879–898 (1980).
Macfadyen, S., Gibson, R. H., Symondson, W. O. C. & Memmott, J. Landscape structure influences modularity patterns in farm food webs: consequences for pest control. Ecol. Appl. 21, 516–524 (2011).
Google Scholar
Reverté, S. et al. Spatial variability in a plant–pollinator community across a continuous habitat: high heterogeneity in the face of apparent uniformity. Ecography 42, 1558–1568 (2019).
Torné‐Noguera, A., Arnan, X., Rodrigo, A. & Bosch, J. Spatial variability of hosts, parasitoids and their interactions across a homogeneous landscape. Ecol. Evol. 10, 3696–3705 (2020).
Google Scholar
Hernández‐Castellano, C. et al. A new native plant in the neighborhood: effects on plant–pollinator networks, pollination, and plant reproductive success. Ecology 101, e03046 (2020).
Google Scholar
Osorio, S., Arnan, X., Bassols, E., Vicens, N. & Bosch, J. Local and landscape effects in a host–parasitoid interaction network along a forest–cropland gradient. Ecol. Appl. 25, 1869–1879 (2015).
Google Scholar
Kaartinen, R. & Roslin, T. Shrinking by numbers: landscape context affects the species composition but not the quantitative structure of local food webs. J. Anim. Ecol. 80, 622–631 (2011).
Google Scholar
Vázquez, D. P. & Simberloff, D. Changes in interaction biodiversity induced by an introduced ungulate. Ecol. Lett. 6, 1077–1083 (2003).
Mulder, C., Den Hollander, H. A. & Hendriks, A. J. Aboveground herbivory shapes the biomass distribution and flux of soil invertebrates. PLoS ONE 3, e3573 (2008).
Google Scholar
Montoya, D., Yallop, M. L. & Memmott, J. Functional group diversity increases with modularity in complex food webs. Nat. Commun. 6, 7379 (2015).
Google Scholar
Grass, I., Jauker, B., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Tscharntke, T. & Jauker, F. Past and potential future effects of habitat fragmentation on structure and stability of plant–pollinator and host–parasitoid networks. Nat. Ecol. Evol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0631-2 (2018).
Cagnolo, L., Salvo, A. & Valladares, G. Network topology: patterns and mechanisms in plant–herbivore and host–parasitoid food webs. J. Anim. Ecol. 80, 342–351 (2011).
Google Scholar
Maiorano, L., Montemaggiori, A., Ficetola, G. F., O’Connor, L. & Thuiller, W. TETRA‐EU 1.0: a species‐level trophic metaweb of European tetrapods. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 29, 1452–1457 (2020).
Kopelke, J. et al. Food‐web structure of willow‐galling sawflies and their natural enemies across Europe. Ecology 98, 1730 (2017).
Google Scholar
Sole, R. V. & Montoya, M. Complexity and fragility in ecological networks. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 268, 2039–2045 (2001).
Google Scholar
Broido, A. D. & Clauset, A. Scale-free networks are rare. Nat. Commun. 10, 1017 (2019).
Google Scholar
Guilhaumon, F., Mouillot, D. & Gimenez, O. mmSAR: an R-package for multimodel species–area relationship inference. Ecography 33, 420–424 (2010).
Matthews, T. J., Triantis, K. A., Whittaker, R. J. & Guilhaumon, F. sars: an R package for fitting, evaluating and comparing species–area relationship models. Ecography https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.04271 (2019).
Galiana, N. Ecological network complexity scales with area. Dryad https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.zcrjdfndg (2021).
