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This study presents a comprehensive quantification of carbon sequestration as well as CO2/CH4/N2O emissions reductions from terrestrial ecosystems based on multiple sources of data from literature, inventories, public databases and documents. The pathways considered ecosystem restoration and protection from being converted into cropland or built-up areas, reforestation, management with improved nitrogen use in cropland, restricted deforestation, grassland recovery, reducing risk from forest wildfire and others. Here we describe the cross-cutting methods that apply across all 16 NCS pathways. The definitions, detailed methods and data sources for evaluating individual pathways can be found in the Supplementary Information.Cross-cutting methodsBaseline settingWe set 2000 as the base year because the large-scale national ecological projects, such as the Grain for Green Project, were started since then. We first evaluate the historical mitigation capacity during 2000–2020, which is the first 20 years of implementing the projects. From this procedure we can determine how much mitigation capacity has been realized through the previous projects in the past two decades and to what extent additional actions can be made after 2020. Relative to the baseline 2000–2020, we then evaluate the maximum potentials of the NCS mitigation in the future 10 (2020–2030) and 40 (2020–2060) years, corresponding to the timetable of China’s NDCs: carbon peak before 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060.The settings of baseline in this study are different from the existing assessments (2000s–2010s as a baseline and 2010–2025/2030/2050 as scenarios)1,22,23,27,28. Baseline sets the temporal and spatial reference for NCS pathway scenarios, which may have a great impact on the NCS estimates. Notably, NCS actions during 2000–2020 will have a great impact in the future periods, which we refer to as the ‘legacy effect’. The legacy effect itself, mainly reforestation, is independent of being assessed, but it is conceptually attributed to natural flux and excluded from future NCS potential estimates.Maximum potentialThe MAMP refers to the additional CO2 sequestration or avoided GHG emissions measured in CO2 equivalents (CO2e) at given flux rates in a period on the maximum extent to which the stewardship options are applied (numbers are expressed as TgCO2e yr−1 for individual pathways and PgCO2e yr−1 for national total) (Extended Data Fig. 1 and Supplementary Table 2). ‘Additional’ means mitigation outcomes due to human actions taken beyond business-as-usual land-use activities (since 2020) and excluding existing land fluxes not attributed to direct human activities1. The MAMP of CH4 and N2O are accounted by three cropland and wetland pathways (cropland nutrient management, improved rice cultivation and peatland restoration). We adopt 100 yr global warming potential to calculate the warming equivalent for CH4 (25) and N2O (298), respectively38,39 because these values are used in national GHG inventories, although some researchers have argued that using the fixed 100 yr global warming potential to calculate the warming equivalents may be problematic because they cannot differentiate the contrasting impacts of the long- and short-lived climate pollutants39. Because the flux rate of the GHG by ecosystems may vary with the time of recovery or growth, the MAMP may also change for different periods even given the same extent.The ‘maximum’ is constrained by varied factors across the NCS pathways. We constrain forest and grassland restoration by the rate of implementation, farmland red line and tree surviving rate (Extended Data Fig. 2). Surviving rate here is the ratio of the area with increased vegetation cover due to reforestation to the total reforestation area. The farmland red line refers to ‘the minimum area of cultivated land’ given by the Ministry of Land and Resources of China. It defines the lowest limit, and the current red line is ~120 Mha. It is a rigid constraint below which the total amount of cultivated land cannot be reduced. From this total amount, there is provincial farmland red line. This red line sets a constraint on the implementation of the NCS pathways associated with land-use change. We set the future scenario of farmland area that can be used for grassland or forest restoration on the basis of the provincial farmland red line. Basic farmland is closely related to national food security. By 2050, China’s population is predicted to decrease slightly, but with economic development, the per capita demand for food may increase40. We assume that the food production in the future can meet the food demand via increasing agricultural investment and technological advancement. The N fertilizer reduction scenario is set to be below the level 60%, under which crop yield is not significantly affected19, because N fertilizer is surplus in many Chinese croplands. For timber production, we assume that the demand for timber can be met if the production level is maintained at the level of 2010–2020 (83.31 million m3 yr−1). As deforestation of natural forests is 100% forbidden since 2020, the future timber will come mainly from tree plantations. For grazing optimization, we assume that livestock production is not affected by grassland fencing due to refined livestock management such as improving feed nutrient and fine-seed breeding41.The areas of historical NCS implementation during 2000–2020 were estimated using statistical data, published literature and public documents, with a supplement from remote-sensing data. The flux rates were obtained either by directly using the values from multiple literature sources or from estimates using the empirical formulae. For the estimates of future NCS potential, the flux rate and extent of the pathway were determined on the basis of the baseline (2000–2020). The extent is assumed to be achieved by using the same rate but limited by the multiple constraints stated in the preceding unless the implementation scopes have been reported in national planning documents. We estimate the legacy effect by multiplying the implementation area in the past by the flux rates in the future two periods.SaturationThe future mitigation potential that we estimate for 2030 and 2060 will not persist indefinitely because the finite potential for natural ecosystems to store additional carbon will saturate. For each NCS pathway, we estimate the expected duration of the potential for sequestration at the maximum rate (Supplementary Table 3). Forests can continue to sequester carbon for 70–100 years or more. Restored grasslands and fenced grasslands can continue to sequester carbon for >50 years. Forest-fire management and cover crops can continue to sequester carbon for 40–50 years or more. Sea grasses and peatlands can continue to sequester carbon for millennia. Avoided pathways do not saturate as long as the business-as-usual cases indicate that there are potential areas for avoided losses of ecosystems. In this case, sea grass and salt marsh would disappear entirely after 64 years, but it would be 100–300 years or more for forest, grassland and peatland.Estimation of uncertaintiesThe extent (area or biomass amount) and flux (sequestration or reduced emission per area or biomass amount in unit time) are considered to estimate uncertainty of the historical mitigation capacity or future potential for each NCS pathway. We use the IPCC approaches to combine uncertainty42. Where mean and standard deviation can be estimated from collected literature, 95% CIs are presented on the basis of multiple published estimates. Where a sample of estimates is not available but only a range of a factor, we report uncertainty as a range and use Monte Carlo simulations (with normal distribution and 100,000 iterations) to combine the uncertainties of extent and flux (IPCC Approach 2). The overall uncertainties of the 16 NCS pathways were combined using IPCC Approach 142. If the extent estimate is based on a policy determination, rather than an empirical estimate of biophysical potential, we do not consider it a source of uncertainty.MACsThe economic/cost constraints refer to the amount of NCS that can be achieved at a given social cost. The MAC curve is fitted according to the total publicly funded investment and total mitigation capacity or potential during a period. The MAC curves are drawn to estimate the historical mitigation or MAMP at the cost thresholds of US$10, US$50 and US$100 (MgCO2e)−1, respectively. The trading price in China’s current carbon market is ~US$10 USD (as the minimum cost43), and the cost-effective price point44,45 to achieve the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels is US$100 (as the maximum cost). A carbon price of US$50 is regarded as a medium value1,46. For the pathways of reforestation, avoided grassland conversion, grazing optimization and grassland restoration, we collected the statistical data of investments in China from 2000 to 2020 and estimated the affordable MAMP below the three mitigation costs. Due to data limitations, the points used for fitting the MAC curve are values for cost (invested funds) and benefit (mitigation capacity) in each of the provinces. We rank the ratio of benefit to cost in a descending order to obtain the maximum marginal benefit for MAC by assuming that NCS measures are first implemented in the region with the highest cost/benefit rate. We refer to the investment standard before 2020 as the benchmark and estimate the cost of each pathway for the future periods with discount rates of 3% and 5%, respectively. The social discount rate 4–6% is usually used as a benchmark discount value in carbon price studies in China compared with lower scenarios (for example, 3.6%)46,47. In a global study for estimating country-level social cost of carbon, 3% and 5% are used for scenario analysis48. Note that the mean value from the two discount rates was used in presenting the results. For the other pathways where investment data cannot be obtained, we refer to relevant references to estimate MAC. All the cost estimates are expressed in 2015 dollars, transformed on the basis of the Renminbi and US dollar exchange rate of the same year. The year 2015 represents a relatively stable condition of economic increase over the past decade (2011–2020) in China (the increase rate of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2015 is similar to the 10 yr mean). In the cases when the MAC curves exceed the estimated maximum potentials in the period, we identify the historical capacity or the MAMP as limited by the biophysical estimates.Additional mitigation required to meet Paris Agreement NDCsOn 28 October 2021, China officially submitted ‘China’s Achievements, New Goals and New Measures for Nationally Determined Contributions’ (‘New Measures 2021’ hereafter) and ‘China’s Mid-Century Long-Term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategy’ to the Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as an enhanced strategy to China’s updated NDCs (first submission in 2015). The goal of China’s updated NDCs is to strive to peak CO2 emissions before 2030 and achieve carbon neutralization by 2060. It specified the goals to include the following: before 2030, China’s carbon dioxide emissions per unit of GDP are expected be more than 65% lower than that in 2005, and the forest stock volume is expected to be increased by around 6.0 (previously 4.5) billion m3 over the 2005 level. In the ‘New Measures 2021’9 and ‘Master Plan of Major Projects of National Important Ecosystem Protection and Restoration (2021–2035)’5, many NCS-related opportunities are proposed to consolidate the carbon sequestration of ecosystems and increase the future NCS potential, including protecting the existing ecosystems, implementing engineering to precisely improve forest quality, continuously increasing forest area and stock volume, strengthening grassland protection and recovery and wetland protection and improving the quality of cultivated land and the agricultural carbon sinks.Industrial CO2 emissionsThe historical CO2 emissions data from 2000 to 201749,50 are used as the benchmark of industrial CO2 emissions during 2000–2020. For future projections, we use the peak value of the A1B2C2 scenario (in the range of 10,000 to 12,000 Mt) in 2030 from ref. 11. We assume that CO2 emission increases linearly from 2017 to 2030.Characterizing co-benefitsNCS activities proposed in the future measures or plans may enhance co-benefits. Four generalized types of ecosystem services are identified: improving biodiversity, water-related, soil-related and air-related ecosystem services (Fig. 1). Biodiversity benefits refer to the increase in different levels of diversity (alpha, beta and/or gamma diversity)51. Water, soil and air benefits refer to flood regulation and water purification, improved fertility and erosion prevention, and improvements in air quality, respectively, as defined in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment52. The evidence that each pathway produces co-benefits from one or more peer-reviewed publications was collected through reviewing the literature (see the details for co-benefits of each pathway in Supplementary Information).Mapping province-level mitigationThe data for extent of implementing forest pathways are obtained from the statistical yearbook and reported at the province level. To be consistent with the forest pathways, the other pathways were also aggregated to the provincial-level estimate from the spatial data. If the flux data were available in different climate regions, the provinces are first assigned to climate regions. When a province spans multiple climate zones, the weight value is set according to the proportion of area, and finally an estimated value of rate was calculated (for fire management, some grassland and wetland pathways). For the forest pathways, we first collected the flux-rate data from reviewing literature and then averaged these flux rates to region/province. The flux rates for reforestation and natural forest management were calculated separately by province and age group. Similarly, specified flux rates are applied for different times after ecosystem restoration or conversion for other pathways.Classification of NCS typesThree types of NCS pathways were classified: protection (of intact natural ecosystems), improved management (on managed lands) and restoration (of native cover)35. In our study, four (AVFC, AVGC, AVCI, AVPI), eight (IMP, NFM, FM, BIOC, CVCR, CRNM, IMRC, GROP) and four (RF, GRR, CWR, PTR) NCS pathways were identified as protection, management and restoration types, respectively (Supplementary Table 1). These pathways can be further divided into groups of ‘single’ type or ‘mixed’ type according to their contribution to individual pathways. Specifically, in a certain area, when the mitigation capacity of a certain pathway accounts for more than 50% of the total, it is regarded as a single or dominant NCS type; if no single pathway accounts for more than 50%, it is a mixed type, named by the top pathways whose NCS sum exceeds 50% of the total mitigation capacity. More

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DataSpatial and temporal rangeWe focused on a geographic area that is defined by a cropping window with the corner points P1 (Lon = −180, Lat = 25) and P2 (Lon = −52, Lat = 80), covering the majority of the North American continent (e.g., Fig. 3). We focused on the last 30 Myr, a time span encompassing most of our available sites with paleovegetation information (Supplementary Fig. 1). From the following data sources, we only selected those data points that fall within this spatiotemporal range.Our approach described below required discretizing the input data of past vegetation labels and fossil occurrences into time-bins. For this, we chose the age boundaries of geological stages defined in the International Chronostratigraphic Chart, v2020/0345, since these stages are expected to represent meaningful temporal units for analyzing both faunal and floral patterns. A total of 17 geological stages fell within our selected time frame of the last 30 Myr. We discretized the ages of all data points (vegetation data and fossil occurrences) that fell within a given stage by setting them to the midpoint of the respective stage.Paleovegetation dataWe reviewed a large body of peer-reviewed literature containing paleovegetation reconstructions and compiled a database of 331 sites with paleovegetation data for North America (Supplementary Data 1). These sites represent individual vegetation reconstructions based on fossil evidence (phytoliths, pollen, macrofossil assemblages) of distinct locations in time and space. We condensed the vegetation interpretation of the compiled vegetation data, which in many cases described specific vegetation ecosystem components, into the broader labels “open” versus “closed” vegetation. This resulted in 180 sites being labeled as closed and 151 as open, their dating rounded to the midpoint of the nearest geological stage (Supplementary Data 1). For several of these sites we found multiple vegetation reconstructions in the reviewed literature, for example when multiple sediment samples were taken from the same horizon of a given formation, belonging to the same geological stage. We treated these spatiotemporal duplicates as a single data point, excluding sites with mixed vegetation information (i.e., containing both open and closed vegetation reconstructions).Current vegetation dataTo supplement the limited number of paleovegetation sites, we compiled data about the current vegetation within our study area. In order to obtain current vegetation patterns, we downloaded the SYNMAP Global Potential Vegetation data29. As for the paleovegetation data, we collapsed the more detailed biome data into broader categories by coding the SYNMAP biome IDs  More