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Ethics statementThe data collection and experiments were conducted in accordance with the collecting permits (SGPA/DGVS/07946/08, 03369/12, 00228/13, 07587/13, 01629/16, 01205/17, 02490/17, 06768/17, 000998/18, 002463/18, 002490/18, 002491/18, 003209/18, and 02523/19) approved by Dirección General de Vida Silvestre, México.Phylogeny and divergence time estimationTo estimate the phylogeny and divergence time among phrynosomatid species we used sequences of five mitochondrial and eight nuclear genes available in GenBank for 149 taxa (Supplementary Data 2). Accession numbers were the same as those used in Martínez-Méndez et al.58 for the Sceloporus torquatus, S. poinsettii and S. megalepidurus groups and the same as those in Wiens et al.59 for other phrynosomatid species. For taxa not included in the previous references, we searched GenBank for available sequences. We then performed alignments for each gene using MAFFT (ver. 7)60 and concatenation and manual refinement using Mesquite (ver. 3.6);61 obtaining a concatenated matrix of 9837 bp for 149 taxa (Supplementary Data 3). For the relaxed clock analyses, three nodes were calibrated using lognormal distributions based on two previous studies59,62. The first calibration was set for the Sceloporus clade (offset 15.97 million years ago (MYA)) based on a fossil Sceloporus specimen63). The second calibration point was set for the Phrynosoma clade (offset 33.3 MYA) based on the fossil Paraphrynosoma greeni64, and the last calibration point was for the Holbrookia-Cophosaurus stem group (offset 15.97 MYA) given the fossil Holbrookia antiqua63. We conducted dating analysis with the concatenated sequences matrix, partitioned the mitochondrial and nuclear information, each gene under GTR + I + Γ model, and allowed independent parameter estimation. We performed Bayesian age estimation with the uncorrelated lognormal relaxed clock (UCLN) model in BEAST (ver. 2.5.2)65,66 and run on CIPRES67. Tree prior (evolutionary model) was under the Birth-Death model, and we ran two MCMC analyses for 100 million generations each and stored every 20,000 generations. We assessed the convergence and stationarity of chains from the posterior distribution using Tracer (ver. 1.7)68. We combined independent runs using LogCombiner (ver. 2.5.2; BEAST distribution)69 and discarded 30% of samples as burn-in, obtaining values of effective sample size (ESS) greater than 200. We estimated the maximum clade credibility tree from all post-burnin trees using TreeAnnotator (ver. 1.8.4)69. The ultrametric tree is available as Supplementary Data 4. As we describe below, we accounted for phylogenetic uncertainty in our models by reperforming analyses using 500 trees that we randomly sampled from our posterior distribution. The 500 sampled trees are available as Supplementary Data 5.Data collectionParity modeWe categorized each species as either oviparous or viviparous based on previously published databases21,37,51,70, published references, and unpublished data (Supplementary Data 1). Our assignations align with other studies, except for one species, Sceloporus goldmani, which has been previously considered a viviparous species21,71,72,73. The only available sequence in GenBank (U88290) for that species is from a male (MZFC-05458) collected in Coahuila, Mexico72. However, in that same locality, one of us (F. R. Méndez-de la Cruz; unpubl. data) collected two females of the same species, and both laid eggs. Thus, the population of S. goldmani herein included is considered oviparous. Considering S. goldmani viviparous increases the number of originations of viviparity to 6 (from 5) in this lineage (Supplementary Fig. 4), but does not alter the outcome of our model-fitting analyses of trait evolution (Supplementary Table 7).Thermal physiologyWe compiled a database of four thermal physiological traits that influence the performance and fitness of ectotherms74 for 104 phrynosomatid species. These data were gathered from both published sources and from our own field and laboratory work (Supplementary Data 1). The thermal physiological traits we examined were the field body temperature (Tb) of active lizards, the preferred body temperature (Tpref) in a laboratory thermal gradient75, cold tolerance (critical thermal minimum, CTmin), and heat tolerance (critical thermal maximum, CTmax). These latter two traits (CTmin and CTmax) describe the thermal limits of locomotion; specifically, they describe the lower and upper temperatures, respectively, at which lizards fail to right themselves when flipped onto their backs55,76. To minimize the confounding effects of experimental design, we limited our data selection to species that were measured with similar methods. Correspondingly, our new data collection approach mirrored that of the published studies from which we extracted data. To obtain mean values for each thermal physiological trait (CTmin, Tb, Tpref, and CTmax) we did not mix data measured from different locations (instead, we used data from the population with the highest sample size).For species that we newly measured thermal physiological traits, we obtained the data as we describe below, and we based our methodology on the previous work55,56,75,76. We captured active (perching) adult lizards by lasso or by hand, and immediately ( More

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In this International Year of Sustainable Mountain Development, we call for transdisciplinary research by Chilean scientists and for concerted action among all stakeholders to address the complex factors responsible for the degradation of Chile’s mountains. Mountains cover 64% of Chile’s surface and are a crucial source of water, food, energy, minerals and biodiversity.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests. More

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J.G. was funded by The Danish Independent Research council (grant 0165-00018B). N.S. and J.W.B were funded by EU Horizon 2020 SUPERB (grant agreement 101036849). N.D.B. was funded by UK Research and Innovation’s Global Challenges Research Fund (UKRI GCRF) through the Trade, Development and the Environment Hub project (project number ES/S008160/1). More

Boreal forests contain about half the carbon (C) of terrestrial forests worldwide, and as such, they play an immense role in the global C cycle. Therefore, accurately predicting the global C balance requires understanding of C fluxes in boreal trees and how they respond to climate change. While the relationships between climate and boreal tree growth are generally non-stationary, it remains unknown whether the same is true of the relationships between climate and C fluxes. More

Stringed instruments can be worth millions of dollars, particularly those made in northern Italy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. There are also many copies and forgeries.As a forest ecologist, I use dendrochronology — or tree-ring dating — to understand how trees grow, as well as to investigate historical environmental conditions. The widths of tree rings vary according to meteorological conditions, so samples can be dated by cross-referencing against databases of ring-width series.In 2010, I was an expert witness in a legal case about a viola supposedly made in the sixteenth century. I agreed with two laboratories that had independently concluded that it could not have been made before the late eighteenth century.Dendrochronology cannot precisely date when an instrument was made, but it can identify the most recent year that the wood it was made from was part of a growing tree. Tree rings give probabilities and levels of confidence in a date according to the availability of appropriate reference series.Dendrochronological analyses can produce conflicting dates, creating confusion about the method’s reliability. The most famous example is the ‘Messiah’ violin made by Antonio Stradivari in 1716. In 1999, doubts were raised about its authenticity when, among other reasons, tree-ring analysis found that the instrument could not have been made before 1738, a year after Stradivari’s death. The finding was based on examining a photograph of the instrument, and was later retracted. The controversy highlighted the limitations of the technique for verifying the authenticity of musical instruments.I also use dendrochronology to understand the impacts of droughts, and I’m fascinated by how trees grow, how water is transported in them and whether species differences are evolutionary adaptations. More