Philippa Kaur

Analysis of the roof failure characteristics of coal seamBefore mining, fracturing was conducted on a portion of gritstone in the lower section of the Naoro Formation and then entered the mining stage. Figure 9 shows the influence law of coal roof rupture under different periodic pressures. With mining of the #2 coal seam working face, the direct roof of the coal seam partially broke and collapsed, forming gangue in the goaf. There is a clear separation between the direct and basic roof. When the working face advanced to 228.2 mm, the old roof ruptured, and the working face started to enter the periodic pressure-bearing stage. As the working face advanced to 592.9 mm, the roof exhibited the fourth periodic pressure. The overlying layer roof in the excavation area was affected by the upper bearing arch pressure, leading to the collapsed rock to not completely contact the upper roof. With the increasing distance of coal seam mining, the roof developed significant subsidence, and the influence range of the bedrock boundary caused by the mining was still in the isolation layer fracturing zone. The bedrock influence boundary angle reached 73.57°, and the rock fracture angle was 56.95°. When the working face advanced to 726.5 mm, the fifth periodic pressure on the roof occurred. The bedrock layer in the upper right of the workings was near the right boundary of the first isolated coal seam rupture. Then, coal mining was suspended, and a second isolated seam fracturing process was conducted. The bedrock influence boundary angle reached 73.57°, and the rock rupture angle was 56.95°.Figure 9Influence law of coal roof rupture during different periodic pressure.Full size imageWhen the processing was advanced to 798.4 mm, the bedrock layer in the upper right of the processed area became close to the right boundary of the second isolated seam fracturing. After the third isolated layer fracturing process, the rock impact boundary angle reached 75.33°, and the rock fracture angle was 50.39°. Proceeding to 1031.6 mm, eighth periodic pressure was generated on the roof. The falling gangue in the mined-out area was in contact with the roof, with the bedrock impact boundary angle reaching 74.77° and the rock fracture angle reaching 57.06°. Thereafter, the bedrock layer of the roof gradually entered the full-scale mining stage. As the working face continues to advance, the bedrock impact boundary caused by coal seam mining should be in isolated coal seam fractures. When the bedrock layer at the working face is close to the right boundary of the isolation layer fracturing, the next isolation layer fracturing should be performed.Analysis of roof stress evolution lawFigure 10 illustrates the change law of the roof support pressure when mining of the working face, in which the roof support pressure curve is the stress change minus the initial value of the sensor before mining. After the excavation of the working face, the surrounding rock will exhibit stress redistribution. The increase in tangential stress in front of the working face or on both sides is called the support pressure. The peak value of the support pressure generally occurs on the front of the working face. As the working face advanced to 228.2 mm, the direct roof gradually broke and collapsed with mining. Due to the redistribution of surrounding rock stress, the stress fluctuation at the open cut was clear. In front of the working face, the overlying rock stress was redistributed due to mining, and the vertical pressure peak area appeared, with a stress increment of 0.03 MPa. When the working face advanced to 360.8 mm, the first cycle pressure on the roof occurred. The falling gangue in the mine-out area gradually approached its upper strata, and the peak support pressure increments reached 0.05 MPa. During the advancement of the working face to 592.9 mm, the direct roof continued to collapse. The gangue at the cuttings was gradually compacted with the roof, and the stresses gradually restored to stability. Coal seam mining led to the decompression of the floor, and the vertical stress maximum reduction at the working face was 0.045 MPa. The peak vertical pressure in front of the working face shifted to the right as mining progressed. When degradation reached 726.5 mm, the fifth periodic pressure on the roof occurred. Figure 10b shows that the fracture of the isolation layer had no apparent effect on the change in roof stress. Within 560 mm from the open excavation, the mine-out area gangue gradually compacted with the roof. Vertical pressure changes between the fourth and fifth periodic pressures are slight and practically nonsignificant.Figure 10Vertical pressure variation law with coal mining. (a) First pressure and First periodic pressure difference. (b) Fourth and First periodic pressure difference. (c) Eighth and Ninth periodic pressure difference. (d) Eleventh and Twelfth periodic pressure difference. (e) Variation laws of vertical pressure with mining.Full size imageWhen the mining reached 1031.6 mm, the directly caving gangue completely filled the goaf and was compacted with the roof. The upper roof of the caving rock was supported again, and the compaction range of the mining area extended to 821 mm. As the working face advanced to 1338.9 mm, the peak vertical pressure appeared at 1400 mm, with a maximum increment of 0.375 MPa. The compaction range of the mining area extends to 1200 mm. Then, the fractured isolation layer can be grouted. The subsequent working face advances until the end of mining, and the rock movement above the mine-out zone will exhibit a periodic “falling-filling-cutting-compaction” process. Fracture grouting of the flexible isolation layer has no significant effect on the vertical stress changes, and the stress unloading area and the peak vertical pressure will continue to change with mining. Nevertheless, consideration needs to be given to the adequacy of the gangue falling from the roof for isolation layer grouting.Roof displacement and development pattern of water-conducting fracture zoneFigure 11 shows the development law of the roof water-conducting fissures in the roof of the coal seam during different pressure periods, where the illustration shows the von Mises equivalent strain. Figure 12 shows the development trend of the water-conducting fracture zone height. From the whole observation, although the isolation layer is treated by fracturing before back mining, it has less influence on the displacement and deformation of the overlying rock layer because it is restricted by the surrounding rock of the model. When the working face was mined to 228.2 mm, the upper roof of the mining face collapsed, and the first periodic pressure occurred on the roof. The roof displacement reached the Yan’an Group mudstone layer, and the roof collapse height was only 104.3 mm. As the mining advanced, the roof fractures in the mining-out area continued to develop upwards. When the working face was mined to 360.8 mm, the first cycle pressure on the roof occurred, and the roof collapse height extended upwards to the siltstone of the Yan’an Formation, with a collapse range of 117.6 mm. At this point, only a small displacement change occurred around the direct roof, and the flexible isolation layer was basically not affected by any impact.Figure 11Development regularity of roof water-conducting fissures during different period pressure.Full size imageFigure 12Development height curve of water-conducting fracture zone.Full size imageFrom the second cycle pressure onwards, the development trend accelerated significantly, and the collapsed height rose rapidly to 210.9 mm. When the working face advanced to 537.1 mm, the third cycle pressure occurred on the roof. The collapsed Yan’an Formation mudstone layer was further pressurized by its upper layers and collapsed to a height of 344.7 mm. The roof displacement had spread to the coarse sandstone of the Naoro Formation, but the height of the water-conducting fracture zone had not reached the bottom of the isolation layer. When the workings reached 592.9 mm, the roof collapsed again, showing the fourth periodic pressure. The water-conducting fissure zone continues to develop upwards to 355.3 mm, which passes through the fissure isolation layer and reaches the gritstone at the top of the isolation layer. The fractured isolation layer is in an “activated” state.When the working face reached 1031.6 mm, fallen gangue completely filled the mining-out area and compacted with the roof, and eighth periodic pressure occurred on the roof. The height of the water-conducting fracture zone developed to 496.8 mm, which was lower than the height of the water-conducting fracture zone of 565.8 mm at the seventh periodic pressure. After that, the old roof collapsed as a cantilevered beam. The development height of the water-conducting fracture zone was allegedly less than 565.8 mm. Afterwards, the roof fracturing direction was consistent with the direction of working face advancement, from left to right. Displacement and fracture of the overlying rock layer were mainly caused by the overall downwards sliding of the upper rock seam due to the collapse of the bottom rock seam. At different heights of the coal seam roof, the degree of displacement damage decreased with increasing height.When the working face reached 1178.7 mm, the roof covering the open cut stabilized. The fractured isolation layers in the 1st ~ 13th groups were grouted, and then the coal was mined only after the slurry had completely solidified and reached a certain strength. The eleventh periodic pressure occurred on the roof, with a water-conducting fracture height of 367.6 mm at this time. When the working face was advanced to 1471.9 mm and 1645.2 mm, the roof had twelfth and fourteenth periodic pressures, and the heights of the water-conducting fracture zone were 332.0 mm and 416.0 mm, respectively. Then, the 14th ~ 15th and 16th ~ 17th group isolation layers of the upper coal seam were grouted while fracturing the right isolation layer. However, the disruption of displacement towards the extent of the development had a relatively small impact, mainly on the roof rock layer above the mining face. Table 2 indicates the development height of the water-conducting fracture zone and the fracture and grouting sequence of the isolated layer.Table 2 Development pattern of water-conducting fracture zone and fracture and grouting sequence of isolated layer.Full size tableDuring the mining process, damage to the water-conducting fissure zone was always a major factor in the displacement of the roof slab. Nonetheless, after fracturing and grouting measures, the effects of the damage were significantly reduced such that the damage to the roof rock was contained within the flexible isolation layer. After grouting, the enhanced strength of the isolation layer ensured that mining was carried out normally. During the mining period, four grouting reforms were made, and the isolation layer was fractured six times, with the maximum development height of the water-conducting fracture zone located at the seventh periodic pressure, reaching 565.8 mm.Analysis of water flow evolution law of overburden roofTo analyse the seepage law of the overburden roof, seven water flow monitoring lines were arranged from the top of the flexible isolation layer to the direct roof of the coal seam. The No. 1 water flow monitoring line was placed in the position of the third group of the isolation layer, which is initially located outside the deformation range of bedrock disturbed by mining and outside the stop line. The flow line was mainly used to monitor the influence of the rock disturbance boundary above the open cut on isolated seam fracturing and grouting. No 2–3 water flow monitoring lines were placed at the isolation layer positions of Group 12 and Group 14, which were initially located near the maximum height of the water-conducting fracture zone and were mainly used to monitor the change laws of the water-conducting fracture zone with mining impact. Monitoring Lines 4–6 were placed in isolation layers No. 17, No. 22 and No. 26 to study the impact of water flow changes with mining disturbance and the advanced influence scope. Water flow monitoring line No. 7 was placed in the thirtieth group of isolated layers, which was originally outside the cut-off line. As shown in Fig. 13, white arrows are water flow vectors in mL/min. Fracturing the 1–18 isolation layers before mining, the water tank hot water was injected into the flexible isolation layer such that the iodized salt in the flexible isolation layer was completely dissolved, and the infrared monitor showed the yellow area in the image. At this point, the water flow monitoring Lines 1–3 and 5–7 show yellow status, indicating that after the fracturing of the isolation layer, the aquifer water flows downwards along the fracture. The lower part of monitoring Line 4 was compacted at the top of the coal seam, indicating that the cracks between the roof and the aquifer had not been communicated. Therefore, the water flow rate was 0 mL/min until the sixth periodic pressure. Mining was then undertaken on the working face. The No. 1 monitoring line was therefore less affected by mining due to its layout outside the stop line, and there was no significant change in water flow before the first grouting.Figure 13Water flow evolution of the overburden roof with coal mining.Full size imageAs shown in Fig. 13, when the working face progressed to second periodic pressure, with the collapse of the coal seam, the stress of the surrounding rock was redistributed, the height of the water flowing fractured zone of the roof increased, and the water flow of the No. 2 monitoring line increased from the initial 9.1 mL/min to 14.0 mL/min. As the working face was advanced above the No. 2 monitoring line, the fifth periodic of pressure were generated in the roof. The development height of the roof water flowing fractured zone reached 504.4 mm. The roof was separated and collapsed, the cracks in the monitoring line communicated with each other, and the rock stress was released. The water flow in the No. 2 monitoring line increased significantly. Monitoring line No. 3 was affected by advanced mining, resulting in the coal seam roof’s increased rock fissures, the water flow path and resistance were reduced, and the water flow reached 48.3 mL/min. At the same time, the influence range of working face bedrock was close to the boundary of the first fracturing of the flexible isolation layer, and Groups 20–22 of isolation lays had been fractured.When mining started at the sixth periodic pressure, the roof water-conducting fracture zone gradually reached the maximum height and penetrated the fractured isolation layer, and the fracture of the roof rock increased. Lines No. 2 and No. 3 reached 44.4 mL/min and 85.6 mL/min, respectively. In fact, the encounter may indicate that the confined water of the gritstone aquifer was released, and the water flow of the working face increased. Then, the working face progressed, and the collapsed gangue above the mining-out area was compacted into the bedrock roof. The stress in the goaf did not change significantly, and the cracks in the strata decreased. The No. 2 and No. 3 water flows of the monitoring line gradually dropped. During this period, the change law of monitoring Lines 4–7 was similar to that of No. 2 and No. 3. During coal seam mining, the roof underwent a process of fracture, collapse, compaction and full mining, and the water flow monitoring line also went through a process of rising and then falling.When the working face was advanced to the eleventh periodic pressure, the grouting transformation of isolation layers 1–12 was conducted. The slurry was injected into the flexible isolation layer by hand pressure pump along the grouting pipe. After the slurry solidified, the colour of the No. 1 and No. 2 monitoring lines gradually became shallow, and the water flow gradually decreased under infrared observation. As the extraction of the coal seam progressed and the flexible insulation layer was broken and grouted, the colour of observation Lines 1–4 turned black in the infrared observation until the fourth grouting of insulation layer 18–19, and the water flow rate all showed 0 mL/min. However, the lower strata of the flexible isolation layer were not yet stabilized, so monitoring Lines 5–7 did not undergo any grouting transformation and still had a large water flow until the end of mining. Flow metre and infrared observations show that the destruction and grouting of the flexible isolation layer had a noticeable effect on the seepage characteristics of the overburden. In particular, after the grouting of the isolation layer, the slurry filled and solidified rapidly, the water flow decreased rapidly, and the water plugging effect of flexible isolation layer grouting was remarkable.Discussion and analysisDuring coal seam mining, the fracturing of the flexible isolation layer should be based on the premining overtopping influence range; that is, when the boundary line of bedrock influence extends to the range of the flexible isolation layer reached by the fracturing area of the flexible isolation layer, the next fracturing should continue. The average boundary angle range of the bedrock was 76.7°, and the field angle should not be less than 73.57°. The grouting of the flexible isolation layer considers the full mining degree of the coal seam. When there is no significant change in stress in the mined area, grouting of the flexible isolation layer at the top of the goaf is conducted. According to the simulation experiment in this paper, the full mining distance of the working face is 1338.9 mm, and the actual distance on site is 187.446 m. It is calculated that the distance between the fracture of the flexible isolation layer should be no less than 854.8 mm away from the working face, and the actual distance on site is 119.672 m. After the working face enters full mining, the shortest distance between the fracturing grouting range of the flexible isolation layer and the working face is not less than 242.6 mm, and the actual distance on site is 33.964 m.As seen from the previous analysis, with the advancement of the working face, the bedrock influence boundary angle of the coal seam does not change significantly, which only plays a guiding role in the fracturing sequence of the flexible isolation layer. The fracturing of the flexible isolation layer had an clear influence on the seepage of water-rich bedrock at the bottom of the Zhiluo Formation. The water-flowing fractured zone formed in the process of coal seam mining promoted the release of fractured water in the water-rich bedrock at the bottom of the Zhiluo Formation. The higher the height of the water-flowing fractured zone is, the greater the seepage of the water-rich bedrock. Coal seam mining had little effect on the seepage characteristics of the water-rich bedrock layer at the bottom of the Zhiluo Formation in the range of not disturbed by mining and advanced influence.In accordance with the stress sensor data, when the working face passed a certain distance, the bottom plate of the extraction area was compacted by the falling gangue, and the sensor pressure data did not change with the mining face. At this time, the grouting of the fracturing area of the flexible isolation layer corresponding to the above goaf was not affected by the mining face. For example, the stress in the goaf of 1200 mm had no clear change. Therefore, the first grouting was conducted in the fracturing area. After the solidification of the grouting slurry, the water flow of monitoring lines No. 1 and No. 2 decreased significantly. This minimized the impact on the original geological environment and at the same time reduced the goaf water drainage of the working face. The sealing effect of the isolation layer has an important influence on promoting water-retaining coal mining.The experimental application of the flexible isolation layer has realized its feasibility from the physical simulation test method in this paper. The realization of a flexible isolation layer requires premining fracturing and postmining isolation grouting. At present, premining fracturing can be achieved by directional drilling technology. There are also examples of roof separation grouting for postmining flexible isolation layer grouting28,29. Therefore, there is no technical bottleneck in field applications. Moreover, there is still a certain distance from the specific engineering application. According to the results of this study, it is predicted that the implementation of a flexible isolation layer will have great significance for water conservation coal mining in western China, which can reduce soil erosion and protect surface ecology. More

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18 January 2022

Portugal leads with Europe’s largest marine reserve

Filipe Alves

 ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3752-2745

0
,

João G. Monteiro

 ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3401-6495

1
,

Paulo Oliveira

2
&

João Canning-Clode

 ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2143-6535

3

Filipe Alves

MARE Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Madeira, Portugal.

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João G. Monteiro

MARE Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Madeira, Portugal.

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Paulo Oliveira

Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation (IFCN, IP-RAM), Funchal, Madeira, Portugal.

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João Canning-Clode

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Maryland, USA.

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Marine conservation is central to the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals 13 (climate action) and 14 (life below water). Portugal has now created the largest marine reserve with full protection in Europe and the North Atlantic, an achievement that other nations could follow.

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Nature 601, 318 (2022)
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00093-8

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Data and softwareThis analysis used two main data sources: (1) annual (through 2020) summaries of landings by species and by region provided by the Atlantic Coastal Cooperative Statistics Program (ACCSP), and (2) vessel-tracking data provided by Global Fishing Watch. The ACCSP is a cooperative state-federal program of U.S. states and the District of Columbia; it was established in 1995 to be the principal source of fisheries-dependent information on the Atlantic Coast of the United States. For the ACCSP data, I obtained annual landings by species for the North Atlantic region, Mid Atlantic region, and South Atlantic region (excluding landings from the Gulf of Mexico). The weekly cumulative landings data was obtained from the NOAA Fisheries Greater Atlantic Quota Monitoring website. Global Fishing Watch is an organization that provides access to information on commercial fishing activities, in particular information on the identity and location of fishing vessels34. Many large vessels use a system known as the Automatic Identification System (AIS) to avoid collisions at sea, broadcast their location to port authorities and other vessels, and to view other vessels in their vicinity. Vessels fitted with AIS transceivers can be observed by AIS base stations and by satellites fitted with AIS receivers. The US Coast Guard requires all vessels larger than 65 feet to have an AIS receiver onboard. Global Fishing Watch obtains AIS data for fishing vessels and enables users with Internet access to monitor fishing activity globally, and to view individual vessel tracks. They also partner with academic researchers to provide more fine-scale data.To obtain the vessel-tracking data for the relevant fisheries, I reviewed NOAA databases of squid and mackerel permits (2019 version; vessels with squid permits are automatically issued a Butterfish permit), and the Atlantic tuna permits (2020 version) and matched each permitted vessel to its unique Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) number, which is associated with Global Fishing Watch tracking information. I was able to identify 84% (187/224) of squid/butterfish permitted vessels (I focused on the SMB1A (Tier 1) permit category associated with the vast majority ( approx. 99%) of squid catch35), 100% of Tier 1 and Tier 2 mackerel-permitted vessels (56/56 vessels), and 74% of active tuna longline vessels (100/135 vessels). “Active” is defined as having reported successfully setting pelagic longline gear at least once between 2006 and 201236. This translates to a total of 17.55 million observations on fishing vessel locations for all three fisheries. I drop any observations that are missing either a latitude or longitude entry. For the squid and mackerel fisheries, I drop any observations with unusual longitudes ((ge 0^{circ }) and ( More

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This study describes the virological and pathological findings of Common buzzards infected with the 2020–2021 HPAI H5N8 virus. These analyses showed that the main lesions were HPAI virus-associated inflammation and necrosis in multiple tissues including brain and heart, confirming HPAI as cause of death or severe disease.The Common buzzard presents with several characteristic traits that make it a valuable bioindicator of HPAIV presence in wildlife. It is a medium-sized raptor, present almost throughout Europe. In the Netherlands, its population has been stable since 1970 with an estimated maximum winter population of 30,000–50,000 individuals16. The Common buzzard is mainly a resident bird, which generally inhabits woodlands but is adaptable to wetlands16,17. Its feeding behavior as an opportunistic predator and scavenger has the potential to expose it to HPAIV-infected prey. Given these predisposing biological traits, it is not unexpected that Common buzzards accounted for the highest number of HPAI virus detections in raptors during the 2020–2021 epizootic.Previous studies showed that HPAI viruses in raptors are highly neurotropic and cause severe neurological disease8,10,15,18,19. This study also supports those findings, as the most consistent lesion in Common buzzards was viral encephalitis, with confirmed presence of viral antigen in affected neurons. In addition to the nervous system, all the tissues tested of the Common buzzards were positive for virus based on RT-PCR and showed infection-related, histological lesions, indicating that HPAI H5N8 virus infection in the Common buzzard causes systemic disease.This study showed that HPAI H5N8 virus is also highly cardiotropic, as the myocardium of the Common buzzards contained the highest amount of virus based on RT-PCR (Table 1), and virus-associated, severe histological lesions in 63% (7/11) birds. In addition, 54% (6/11) of the Common buzzards showed virus-associated lesions in the liver and spleen.The Common buzzard is considered to be infected via the oral route by ingesting HPAIV-infected preys. Transmission of HPAIV from ingesting infected chicken meat has been experimentally confirmed in raptors20. Interestingly, the proventriculus of two birds in our study showed necrotic lesions with viral antigen. This finding further supports the oral route of infection, although we cannot exclude the possibility that the proventriculus was infected via the hematogenous route. It also provides new records of HPAIV enterotropism in wild birds. The adaptation to the intestinal tract is a mechanism recently reported for HPAI H5N8 virus, that may allow a more efficient fecal–oral transmission in wild birds5.Real time PCR (RT-PCR) is the preferred test for HPAI virus detection for active and passive bird surveillance9. In this study, cloacal and pharyngeal swabs had comparable RNA-levels, and both were adequate for the detection of the virus. The tissue analysis by RT-PCR showed that heart, brain, and air sac had highest viral RNA concentrations compared to other organs. Although not confirmed by a quantitative real time PCR, the results obtained by RT-PCR are well supported by histopathology and immunohistochemistry. Our advice for diagnostic pathologists is to collect at least a miniset of samples including brain, heart, liver and spleen, as these tissues are relatively easily sampled and were positive by both RT-PCR and for virus-antigen-associated lesions. For virus diagnosis of Common buzzards found dead (but without the interest or possibility to perform pathological examination), it is enough to collect pharyngeal and cloacal swabs, because they were positive by RT-PCR with Ct values that were comparable to those in most tissues (with exception of heart, that had higher Ct values).We did not detect antibodies against avian influenza virus NP in the sera of the Common buzzards in this study. Most of the birds (8/11) were juveniles in their first year of life, and likely they did not have protective antibodies from previous infections, as this was the first time in their lives that they experienced a HPAI epizootic. The absence of antibodies indicates also that the Common buzzards died acutely soon after infection, similarly to experimentally infected raptors that did not seroconvert before early death19. All the birds in our study were females. Females are larger than males (adult female weigh about 15% more than adult males), thus it is possible that female raptors are easier to find during surveillance or that there are sex-associated differences in feeding patterns.This study showed that HPAIV infection in Common buzzards produced severe systemic disease, and subsequent acute death based on the stage of the pathological changes and absence of serum antibodies. Cloacal and pharyngeal swabs were comparable in detecting the infection. Many organs contained viral RNA; with heart, brain and air sac containing the highest amount of viral RNA. The proventriculus of two birds showed virus-associated lesions, implying a possible adaptation of the virus to the gastro-intestinal tract. More

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Aarhus University, SORALO and KWT digitized bomas, fences and agriculture in a systematic manner using available satellite imagery (see methods). All digitization was re-checked by supervisors, to ensure that no data had been missed, and was adjusted following quality control where and when required. All data were then manually checked by conservation practitioners knowledgeable of the study area. Both the spatial resolution and temporal sampling of the data may present limitations to its accuracy and usage.Spatial resolutionFor both the KWT and SORALO datasets collected using Google Earth, we used the latest Google Earth imagery. Additionally, for KWT’s dataset, we also used the latest Bing maps imagery. However, the spatial resolution of this Google Earth and Bing maps data varies. Resolution can be as high as ~0.5 m, while a few remaining areas still rely on Landsat Imagery with a resolution of 30 m. However, the quality of the Google Earth and Bing maps imagery was generally high enough across the study area to accurately delineate bomas, fencelines and agricultural land. Figures 3 and 4 provide examples of areas that would be digitized, with the boundaries of the boma and fence lines clearly visible.The fencing data collected by Aarhus University used Landsat Imagery at 30 m resolution and smaller fences may be missing from the dataset as they are harder to distinguish. This is also true for wire fence (the predominant type of fencing around the Maasai Mara; Fig. 3C). Vegetation differences used to identify these fence lines may take some time to develop. Therefore, there may be an underestimate of the fences mapped, especially in those regions with high usage of wire fences.It must be noted that images from Google Earth have an overall positional root mean squared error of 39.7 m, which may impact the interpretation of this dataset23. We believe that these errors are acceptable for our first attempt at collecting landscape-scale data, and will be refined over time with improved imagery and ground-truthing. Landsat data has a root mean squared error usually below the size of a pixel, with 90% of pixels having less than 12 m deviation (1 https://www.usgs.gov/media/videos/landsat-collections-rmse).Temporal variationThe most likely discrepancies in data quality will arise from temporal variation in fencing placement, boma usage and placement, and agricultural change. Google Earth data were used for SORALO, using data available up to February 2020. Google Earth and Bing maps data were used for KWT, with data up to 2017. The weighted mean imagery date for SORALO (weighted by the area covered) was the 9th of September 2016 and ranged from 15th of December 2000 to 12th of February 2020 (Fig. 5). Where possible we have added a date-time stamp to the boma, agriculture and fencing dataset to best match the date the satellite imagery was acquired, or when it was collected on the ground. However, KWT and some SORALO data lack date attribute, the latter because no date stamp was found in Google Earth, and the former because no date was recorded for any data. The Aarhus University fencing data are from a Landsat Image from January 2016, and the MEP data are from on-the-ground collection. Our database is built so that as new or updated data become available, from both new satellite imagery and ground-based identification, the data layer can be adjusted (see below).Livestock enclosure validationWe used data on the location of SORALO livestock enclosures from the Magadi region24 (collected using handheld GPS devices), to estimate the accuracy of our data collection. The SORALO ground-truthed database contains 668 bomas, which have been occupied at least once during 2014–2017. In the same area, our boma points database contains 573 bomas (85%) of which 41.2% (n = 275) are within 100 m of ground-truthed points and 87.7% (n = 586) are within 500 m of the ground-truthed points. These ground-truthed points may have inaccuracies from their data collection. Also, many livestock enclosures distant from ground-truthed points are newer than the ground-truthing dataset.Agricultural land validationWe compared our agricultural data layer to a commonly used global open source data layer, the 2015 GFSAD30AFCE 30-m for Africa: Cropland Extent Product (www.croplands.org). Our layer agreed with the Cropland Extent Product across 856 km2 of cropland. However, our layer demarcated 455 km2 (34.4% of the total extent) more agricultural land than was found in the 30 m Cropland Extent Product, because many small areas of subsistence farming had not been detected by this global layer. Additionally, the Cropland Extent Product contained 468 km2 (35.3% of the Cropland Extent Product) of agricultural extent not captured in our layer. Much of this was on the periphery of large continuous agricultural areas and appears inaccurately mapped by the global product.Continual validation and improvement of databaseOngoing ground-truthing exercises by the Mara Elephant Project and other partners will improve the quality of the database over time, particularly the datasets on wire fencing in the Mara region. To do so the TerraChart app combined with a QuickCapture app (to validate fence lines and boma locations using aerial reconnaissance) are integrated into the ArcGIS online framework, and following validation both manually and using automated Python script, can be used to update the features collection database.Additionally, any data currently held in the private domain can be easily integrated into this database, and made available to the public domain with approval. Linking these features using a parent ID allows for not only the addition of new features, but improved spatial accuracy of old features, and temporal changes to features to be captured.This database will be continually improved over time. For example, current efforts from conservation partners in the region have resulted in large scale acquisition of high resolution, up-to-date, satellite imagery which will be further used to refine this database. More

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