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Our results revealed statistically significant relationships between CTs and BA worldwide (P  More

Land vulnerability of an area is directly related to the natural as well as anthropogenic activities involved in the geomorphological unit. Being one of the most vulnerable ecosystems, the estuaries and estuarine islands are delicately affected by both ecological processes of the sea and land and have pressures from multiple anthropogenic stressors and global climate change42,43,44. Ecological vulnerability and ecological sensitivity are similar and both originated from the concept of ecotone10,45. The geomorphologic concept of landscape sensitivity was first proposed by Brunsden and Thornes, who argued that the sensitivity indicated the propensity to change and the capacity to absorb the effects of disturbances10,46,47. Landscape sensitivity is studied by many researchers such as Allison and Thomas, Miles et al., Harvey, Knox, Usher, Haara et al., Thomas, Jennings and Yuan Chi8,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54, through different case studies. Based on their findings Yuan Chi summarized the important characteristics of the landscape sensitivity are: a, the change of the landscape ecosystem; it involves the change likelihood, ratio, and component, as well as the resistance and susceptibility to the change, b, the temporal and spatial scales; which determine the occurrence, degree, and distribution of the change, c, the external disturbances that cause the change; the disturbances included natural and anthropogenic origins with different categories and intensities, and d, the threshold of the landscape sensitivity; it refers to the point of transition for the landscape ecosystem8. The environmental vulnerability of the Munroe Island has been studied based on the characterization of the geomorphological and sociocultural dynamics of the region based on the above characteristics.Bathymetric surveys in Ashtamudi lake and the Kallada riverThe present study shows that the geomorphic processes occurring on the Munroe Island are affected by anthropogenic disturbances in the morpho-dynamics of the Kallada river, Ashtamudi backwaters and associated fluvio-tidal interactions. A detailed bathymetric survey of both water bodies up to the tidal-influenced upper limit of the Kallada river27 was conducted with 200 m spaced grid references (Fig. 5). Bathymetry shows that the deepest point of the Ashtamudi backwater system is in Vellimon lake (13.45 m), the SE extension of Ashtamudi lake. The eastern side of Ashtamudi lake is deeper than the western side of this backwater system. The depth of the backwater decreases towards the estuary, and most parts of the lakebed are exposed here at the mouth of the inlet during the low tide. Compared to Ashtamudi lake, the Kallada river is deeper, and the riverbed area is recorded as the average depth is greater than 13 m. The deepest part of 14.9 m is recorded near Kunnathoor bridge, which is 12 km upstream from Munroe Island. Except for a few spots of hard (resistant) rocks, the river fairly and consistently follows a higher depth throughout its course.Figure 5Bathymetric profile of Ashtamudi lake and adjoining Kallada river (Figure was generated by Arc GIS 10.6).Full size imageOnce the Kallada river supplied very fertile alluvium during its flooding seasons (monsoon/rainy season), and most of this alluvium is deposited in the floodplains of the Munroe Island and the Ashtamudi lake. With a vast river catchment area from elevated lands of Western Ghats and a shorter course of 121 km33,55 and a higher elevation gradient of 12.6 m/km56, the Kallada river has a higher transporting capacity. The eroded surface and mined river/lakebeds at lower courses were replaced by the sediment load supplied by the Kallada river during each flood season until dam construction. During the focus group discussions with residents of the Island, they had described that they were crossing the Kallada river on foot in the 1990s or even earlier during the dry seasons. The construction of the Thenmala reservoir dam in 1980s across the river drastically choked the sediment supply of the Kallada river. In addition, excessive commercial sand mining without any regulation from the riverbeds of Kallada and Ashtamudi waterbodies accelerated the deepening of waterbodies. It increased the erosion of surface and subsurface soils through fluvial and hydraulic action. This, in turn, drastically reduced the deposition of fertile alluvium over the low-lying Munroe Island. The current bathymetry shows that the river channel has deepened its course to 14 m compared to 5–6 m of 1980s. When comparing the bathymetric data of 200127, it is interesting to note that no considerable changes occurred in the bathymetry of Ashtamudi lake over the last two decades.Dams indeed alter aquatic ecology and river hydrology, upstream and downstream, affecting water quality, quantity, breeding grounds and habitation22. The other significant impact of the damming of the Kallada river is the saline water intrusion towards upstream of Ashtamudi lake and the Kallada river. The freshwater discharge is regulated after the construction of the Thenmala reservoir, and the water is being diverted to the reservoir and associated canals. There is a decline in sedimentation over the floodplains and catchment area as a result of the increased tidal effects and associated running water dynamics, which may accelerate the erosion trend of the nearby places.Lithological characterization of the Munroe IslandThe Munroe Island is a riverine delta formation by the Kallada river at the conjunction of river and backwater systems. To understand the micro-geomorphological processes of the study area, the near-surface geology of the Munroe Island had been studied in detail with the help of resistivity meter surveys and borehole datalogs from different locations. As per the current resistivity survey, it is evident that the Munroe Island is formed by recent unconsolidated loose sediments more than 120 m thick succession below ground level (Figs. 6 and 7). The electrical resistivity tomography of identified locations within the deltaic region shows a meagre resistance value to its maximum penetration (Fig. 6), which proves that the sedimentary column with intercalations of sand and carbonaceous clays of varying thickness extends to a depth of 120 m, in turn indicating the process of enormous sedimentation happened during the recent geological period. Loose wet soils of saline nature records a lower resistance value for an electric circuit. The layers formed in the diagram (Fig. 6) represent the seasonal deposition of unconsolidated soils as thin sequence. The Mulachanthara station of the resistivity meter tomography, which is situated at a more stable location of the Island, has a higher resistivity value than the West Pattamthuruth location, which is located at the exact alluvial flood plain.Figure 6Electrical resistivity profiles of Munroe Island.Full size imageFigure 7Geomorphological map showing litho-log of north (Kannamkadu); middle (Konnayil Kadavu); and south (Perumon bridge) locations of Munroe Island (borehole data source: PWD, Govt of Kerala) (Software used: Arc GIS 10.6).Full size imageThe Public Works Department (PWD), Kerala State carried out soil profile studies through Soil Penetrating Test (SPT) borehole drilling method as part of constructing bridges at three different locations up to a depth of 62 m, i.e., one across the Kallada river (north side)57, one across Ashtamudi lake in southern Munroe Island58 and one at the central part of Munroe Island (across a canal)59 (Fig. 7). The hard rock is found only on the southern side of the lake at a depth of 45 m. The litho-log shows that unconsolidated loose sediments of significantly higher thickness occur in the entire Munroe Island (Fig. 7). Anidas Khan et al.60 studied the shear strength and compressibility characteristics of Munroe Island’s soil for two different locations with disturbed and undisturbed samples. They classified the soil of Mundrothuruth into medium compressibility clay (CI) and high compressibility clay (CH) with natural moisture contents of 44.5% and 74%, respectively. The unconfined compressive strengths of the undisturbed and remolded samples for the first location are 34.5 kN/m2 and 22.1 kN/m2, respectively, while they are 13 kN/m2 and 9 kN/m2 respectively for the second location60. Such compressive strength indicates that the soils of Munroe Island are soft or very soft in nature.Land degradation: a morphological analysisTo decrease the impact of the monsoon floods and to distribute the alluvium to the southern part of the island, Canol Munroe, the then Diwan of the Thiruvithamkoor Dynasty, made an artificial man-made canal during the 1820s connecting the Kallada river with the eastern extension of Ashtamudi lake, and this river is known as “Puthanar” (meaning a new river). During the last few decades, (after 1980s) the estuarine island ecosystem of Munroe Island has faced several structural deformities. The natural sedimentation and flooding happening in the Islands were very limited and hence, the normal events happened over the past several decades disturbed and significantly affected the land neutrality. These islands, once known as the region’s rice bowl, now devoid of any paddy cultivation mainly because of the increased soil salinity. According to the Cadastral map prepared by the revenue department (1960s) there were many paddy fields, locally named as Mathirampalli Vayal (Vayal is the local name for paddy field), Thekke Kothapppalam Vayal, Mattil Vayal, Kottuvayal, pallaykattu Vayal, Konnayil Vayal, Vadakke Kundara Vayal, Thachan Vayal, Thekke Kundara Vayal, Kizhakke Oveli Vayal, Thekke Oveli Vayal, Odiyil Vettukattu Vayal, Nedumala Vayal, Madathil Vayal, Karichal Vayal, Moonumukkil Vayal, Arupara Vayal, Kaniyampalli Vayal, Manakkadavu Vayal, Panampu Vayal, Pattamthuruth Vayal etc. The recent satellite images shows that no paddy cultivation exist now, which is further confirmed by the field observations conducted through our study. The annual report published by Gramapanchayat39 indicate that the paddy field of region was reduced from 227 to 8 acres (from 1950 to 1995) and now about in 2 acres only (2018). Most of the paddy fields of northern and northwestern regions are severely affected by land degradation due to erosion, saline water intrusion and flooding and are entirely or partially buried under the backwater system. Figure 8 depicts the morphological degradation of the severely affected areas of Munroe Island from 1989 to 2021 through different satellite images. Some paddy fields are converted into filtration ponds to take the benefit of frequent tidal flooding. The coconut plantations were later introduced in place of paddy fields, and they eventually replaced the paddy fields. However, during the last decades, it has been observed that these coconut plantations are also under threat mainly because of degradation of the soil fertility, which directly bears the quality and quantity of production (Fig. 9).Figure 8Morphological changes in the study area from the satellite images (a) 1989 (aerial photograph); (b) 2000 (Landsat); (c) 2011 (World View—II); (d) 2021 (Sentinel) (the modified maps of (a) is obtained from National remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad, (b) is downloaded from https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/ (c) is obtained from Digital Globe through NRSC and (d) is downloaded from https://scihub.copernicus.eu/. Figures were generated using Arc GIS 10.6).Full size imageFigure 9Threatened coconut plantations indicating the low productive regime. Photographs taken by Rafeeque MK.Full size imageOver the study area the most affected alluvial plain of the Peringalam and Cheriyakadavu island are taken separately to study the morphological changes over the decades. This area is named Puthan Yekkalpuram (which means new alluvium land), and the north side of the Kallada river (the northward extension in the Mundrothuruth GP) is demarcated as old alluvium land (Pazhaya Yekkalpuram) as per the revenue department’s cadastral map. The study shows that total 38.73 acres of land has lost from the Peringalam and Cheriyakadavu Islands during the last 32 years, which is equivalent to 11.78% and 46.95% of the total geographical area of the Peringalam and Cheriyakadavu Islands, respectively. The land degradation details over the last three decades are given in the Table 2. Many other locations, such as Nenmeni and West Pattamthuruth, are also severely affected by land degradation. However, these areas are landlocked and less affected by running water or floods. Hence, the land degradation experienced is the settling of the topsoil and subsidence of structures such as houses and bridges. The sinking of basements of many houses and even the subsidence of railway platforms are well observed during field visits, indicating the alarming land degradation issues (Figs. 1 and 10) to be addressed its deserving importance. There are also clear indications of the gradual formation of new waterlogged areas in the islands, which may further deteriorate and forms the part of the backwater system which eventually affects total land area of the Munroe Island.Table 2 Land degradation of Peringalam and Cheriyakadavu region for the past 32 years.Full size tableFigure 10Various environmental degradations in Munroe Island. Photographs taken by Rafeeque MK.Full size imageThe island population also shows a negative growth over the years. According to the census report of 201138, the total population of Gramapanchayat has decreased to 9440 person/km2 in 2011 from 10,013 person/km2 of 2001 and 10,010 person/km2 of 1991 census reports. Frequent flooding (especially tidal flooding), the lack of drinking water, and migration in search of a better livelihood are the main reasons for the observed population reduction as revealed through the survey. The high intrusion of saline water into the cultivated land through tidal flooding and the lack of flushing of surface saline soils by monsoon floods (freshwater) decreased agricultural productivity of the area, and hence, now people are more dependent on fishing and backwater activities for their livelihood. Lack of proper transportation to the nearby markets limits their fishing activities to a daily subsistence level. Due to the flooding caused by subsidence/tidal surges and land degradation during the last few decades, more than 500 households have vacated their houses38,39.Tidal Flooding and Estuarine ProcessesIn Mundrothuruth, the major environmental degradation problems where occurring due to tidal flooding and saline water intrusion into the freshwater ecosystem. Mathew et al. studied the tidal and current mechanisms of the Ashtamudi backwater in 200161. They reported that the Kallada river plays a vital role in determining the eastern lake’s circulation pattern. In addition, the increased discharge from the north Chavara canal and the south Kollam canal also influences the local circulation of the Ashtamudi backwater. The current velocity reaches up to 100 cm/s at the estuary entrance, but it rapidly diminishes in the eastern parts, where the speed is generally less than 30 cm/s. One of the critical observations made during the field study, which corroborates with the acquaintance of local people as well, is that the flooding on Munroe Island is not related to the spring tide of the open ocean. The disappearance of the semidiurnal tide in the central lakes occurs due to frictional resistance and the time lags for the tide to travel across the estuary61. At the shorter semidiurnal period of approximately 12 h, the tide is more dissipated than the more extended constituents of 24-h duration. The survey conducted with the island inhabitants also reiterates these views.As per the experience of local inhabitants, tidal flooding in Munroe Island was not frequent in earlier times. The comparison of the bathymetry data collected during 200058 and 2017 (Fig. 5) in and around the regions of Munro Islands shows that there is not much change in bathymetry during the period. Hence, changes in basin geometry are not having a significant role in tidal dynamics in imparting the variations as observed. In addition to the bathymetric survey, the data on tide measurements at four locations corresponding to three seasons were also collected. The tide data measured during the pre-monsoon period is shown in Fig. 11a. The figure shows that the tidal range in the inland area is almost the same even during the spring and neap tides. As discussed earlier, the tidal flooding in Munro Island is not related to spring tide in the ocean, and there may be the influence of specific complicated dynamics in the basin for this flooding that needs to be studied more profoundly. Further the data pertaining to tidal dynamics were inadequate; we established three tide gauges in selected locations in and around Munro Island. From the analysis of tide gauge data, it is found that the signature of anomalous variability in water column height, which is not at all linked to the tidal dynamics.Figure 11(a) Salinity variation of bottom water at selected locations in Kallada river during monsoon and post monsoon. (b) Observed tide during pre-monsoon months.Full size imageThe water quality analysis for three time periods, during the year of the cyclonic storm, Okhi (2017), was conducted to understand river run-up impact on salinity in and around Munroe Island (Fig. 11). The riverbed is lowered below the baseline of erosion, and dense saline water is trapped in the deeps during high tide. This has been confirmed during the bathymetric survey of the Kallada river and Ashtamudi backwaters, which showed a significant increase in water depth, particularly within the river channel. The high-density saline water is trapped in the basins and trenches created in the river channel due to uncontrolled sand mining, which leads to the degradation of the quality of sediments and groundwater in the region. Nevertheless, the samples collected immediately after Okhi (when the dam’s shutter was opened due to heavy rainfall in the catchment area) show that the high runoff replaced the trapped saline water with fresh water. After ten days of the first sampling, the water became saline nature after the closure of the dam’s shutter. This proves that because of dam construction, the river runoff in the Kallada river was reduced significantly, and extensive human interactions especially sand mining activities increased the riverbed deepening and formation of pools beyond the base level of running water.Conservations and management strategiesConsidering the facts discussed above, the Munroe Island may continue to be badly affected unless suitable sustainable management strategies are not evolved. Construction and associated activities, such as the damming of reservoirs, sand mining and landfilling, are indispensable for any nation’s economic and social development. United Nations’s member states have formulated 17-point Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDGs) to better the world sustainably. Local and national governments pertaining to the Munroe Island need to develop a sustainable management plan to protect this Ramsar-listed wetland. The environmental issues of Mundrothuruth can be controlled, and land degradation may be monitored through a well-drafted working plan. All aspects of earth and social sciences may be integrated to draft such a management plan of reverse landscaping. The reverse landscaping (i.e., recalling the degrading landscape to its geomorphic isostatic state) method is a must-considered sustainable solution for land degradation and other environmental issues.The deep courses of Kallada river must be upwarped through a well-planned artificial sedimentation to eradicate the saline banks of deep basins. The sediments deposited in the Thenmala reservoir and the sediments removed through the digging of boat channels may be utilized in a periodic monitoring method. Sand mining from Ashtamudi lake and the Kallada river may be strictly controlled, and the minimum freshwater flow should be ensured. The construction methods practiced in Mundrothuruth are outdated and technically nonexistent. Well-studied engineering methods suitable for an environmentally fragile area must be implemented with a proper understanding of the soil characteristics, such as shear strength and compressibility rate, and hydrodynamics, such as tidal and fluvial actions. Soil fertility must be increased by supplying additional fertile soil and freshwater, at least for a minimum period. The inhabitants’ socioeconomic well-being is strengthened by advancing technology and providing easy access to the market and other social amenities. More

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