Ecology

Changes of straw degradation characteristics at different culture stagesCorn straw degradation ratioCorn straw weight loss in M44 at F1 reached 35.90% at 15 ℃ for 21 days, which was greater than that at F5, F8, and F11 by 2.33%, 3.01%, and 3.35%, respectively. There were no significant differences between F8 and F11(Fig. 1).Figure 1Corn straw degradation ratio was measured at different culture stages. The same small letter means there was no significant difference, and different small letters indicate significant differences at p  More

Selection of environmental-biotic events to be studiedIn global warming events associated with mass extinctions, the current environmental changes are similar to those recorded during the end-Ordovician, end-Guadalupian, and end-Permian mass extinctions. Therefore, I analyzed global surface temperature anomalies, mercury pollution concentrations, and deforestation percentages in these three mass extinctions and in the current crisis. The asteroid impact at the K–Pg boundary and nuclear war cause the formation of stratospheric soot aerosols distributed globally, thus inducing sunlight reductions and global cooling (impact winter and nuclear winter). I also analyzed stratospheric soot aerosols as a possible cause of future extinctions.Most likely case and worst caseThe most likely case corresponds to the reduction of CO2 emissions resulting from human conduct, the protection of forests, and the introduction of anti-pollution measures in the future under the Paris Agreement on Climate change and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The worst case corresponds to the scenario in which humans fail to stop increasing global surface temperatures, pollution, and deforestation until 2100–2200 CE.I use the average of the RCP4.5 and RCP6.0 cases in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)8 as the most likely case of GHG emissions, representing the middle of the four potential GHG emissions cases (RCP2.6, 4.5, 6.0, and 8.5) in Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC8, approximately corresponding to the middle of SSP2-4.5 and SSP3-7.0 in Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC9. The timing of decreased global GHG emissions is 2060–2080 CE. Therefore, I use the average GHG emissions and global surface temperature anomalies of the RCP4.5 and RCP6.0 cases as the most likely values and those of the RCP8.5 case as the worst-case scenario, marked by stopping GHG emissions from 2090 to 2100 CE8,9, as this case corresponds to the highest GHG emissions8,9.Surface temperature anomaly, environment, and extinction magnitude dataData on surface temperature anomalies and extinction percentages are from Kaiho4. Changes in industrial GHG emissions and global surface temperature anomalies are sourced from the Fifth and Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC8,9.Pollution can be represented by mercury concentrations measured in sedimentary rocks recording mass extinctions8 and in recent sediments deposited in seas and lakes25,26 because mercury is toxic to plants and animals and because its sources include volcanic eruptions, meteorite impacts, and the combustion of fossil fuels10,33, which are common sources of pollutants, and because it can be commonly measured from sedimentary rocks recording mass extinctions33. The mercury concentration is related to the CO2 emission amount during global warming because of the common sources of mercury and CO2 (volcanism and fossil fuel combustion influencing global warming). Thus, the future mercury concentrations are estimated based on the CO2 emission amounts estimated by the IPCC8,9. Since mercury and the other pollutants mainly come from oil, coal, and vegetation33, the amount of mercury released should change in parallel with industrial CO2 emissions because there is a good correlation between mercury and CO2 emissions11.Deforestation occurs by the expansion of agricultural areas and urban areas, which are strongly related to human populations13,28. Thus, future deforestation percentages are estimated based on estimated future population data27 (Supplementary Table S2). The severity of deforestation in each event is expressed by the occupancy % of the deforested area in the pre-event forest area in (i) the Permian–Triassic transition marked by the largest mass extinction based on plant fossil records24 and (ii) 2005–2015 CE as a representative of the Anthropocene epoch12,13,28 based on the actual forest area relative to the pre-agriculture phase before 4000 BP. Deforestation is related to the human population because agriculture and urbanization have caused deforestation13,28. I estimate the past and future deforestation percentage using human population data in the past and future21 based on the parallel growth of the human population and deforestation13,28.Amount of stratospheric soot was calculated using a method of Kaiho and Oshima34 (Supplementary Table S1). I obtained global surface temperature anomaly caused by stratospheric soot using Fig. 5 of Kaiho and Oshima34.I then use those data to estimate the future extinction magnitude based on the assumption that the Earth and contemporary life at the time of each crisis are more or less mutually comparable throughout time and to the present day.I estimate the magnitude of the species animal extinction crisis between 2000 and 2500 CE using Figs. 1, 2 and Supplementary Tables S1 and S2 in each cause under the most likely case and worst case under three nuclear war scenarios (zero, minor, and major; Fig. 2d)15 in the PETM and mass extinction cases, respectively (Supplementary Tables S3, S4; Fig. 3). Finally, I estimate the magnitude of current animal extinction crisis by the four causes as an average of the species extinction magnitude by the four causes in Fig. 3. I use two different contribution rates of temperature anomalies, pollution, deforestation, and stratospheric soot by nuclear wars, 1:0.2:0.1:1 for marine animals and 1:0.5:1:1 for terrestrial tetrapods (different contribution case considering lower influence of pollution and deforestation to marine animals rather than terrestrial animals) and 1:1:1:1 for marine animals and 1:1:1:1 for terrestrial tetrapods (equal contribution case considering high influence of pollution and deforestation to marine animals via rain and soil erosion) (Supplementary Tables S5–S9). These contribution rates are estimated as end-members to show ranges of animal species extinction magnitude (%). More

Madhusudan Katti says ecology would benefit from including perspectives from all of Earth’s inhabitants.Credit: Marc Hall

Decolonizing science

Science is steeped in injustice and exploitation. Scientific insights from marginalized people have been erased, natural history specimens have been taken without consent and genetics data have been manipulated to back eugenics movements. Without acknowledgement and redress of this legacy, many people from minority ethnic groups have little trust in science and certainly don’t feel welcome in academia — an ongoing barrier to the levels of diversity that many universities claim to pursue.
In the next of a short series of articles about decolonizing the biosciences, Madhusudan Katti suggests five shifts that ecologists need to make to unravel the effects of colonization on their field. Katti, an evolutionary ecologist at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, would also like to see stronger inclusion of uncredentialed experts and Indigenous communities in research.

Last year, my colleagues and I wrote a paper highlighting five shifts that would help to decolonize ecology (C. H. Trisos et al. Nature Ecol. Evol. 5, 1205–1212; 2021). Ecologists need to improve how they incorporate varied perspectives, approaches and interpretations from the diverse peoples inhabiting Earth’s natural environments. The five shifts are: the individual need to decolonize one’s mind; understand the history of colonization and how it shaped Western ecology; facilitate access to and dissemination of data; recognize diverse scientific expertise; and establish inclusive research groups. Although it can be difficult to make reforms given how resistant institutions are to change, we are optimistic because we have received invitations to speak on these issues. People are ready for these conversations.
Decolonizing science toolkit
My colleagues and I developed a workshop around the five shifts. We have conducted the workshop at my institution, and at the annual conference of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. For each of the shifts, I have participants brainstorm and write down challenges and solutions that might lead to progress in these areas for their own research departments or institutions. We address them, shuffle groups and suggest policy changes and future action.Some organizations are already moving forward with some low-hanging fruit, such as making data and published results more accessible. However, open-access publishing models put an even greater burden of publication costs on authors and perpetuate inequalities, because early-career researchers and those in the global south often can’t afford them.The most contentious area tends to be the reluctance of academia to accept non-credentialed expertise such as traditional knowledge. Universities are in the business of giving out credentials in the form of degrees. If academia no longer requires a PhD, that can be a challenge to that model. There are also few, if any, incentives or rewards to spend time working towards decolonizing academia, even though it takes time and effort away from furthering individual careers.As an Indian American, I would like to see institutions expand antiracism conversations rather than introduce new checklists of things to do. For example, at annual meetings, it would be great to see scientific societies make more connections with the Indigenous communities where we work and invite them to share their perspectives.
This interview has been edited for length and clarity. More

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Each sedimentary sequence from the three excavated ponds (Tampolove [TAMP], Ankatoke [ANKA], and Andranobe [ANDR]) includes a layer of clay (defined as zone 2), which separates the surface soil formation (zone 1) from the underlying fossiliferous muddy sand and bedrock (zone 3, Figs. S4–S7 & S9). Details regarding the composition of this sediment and its microfossils are given in Appendix-Results-Excavation (Figs. S9–S12).Subfossils and chronologyCoastal survey recovered mostly zebu bones on exposed sandy surfaces, some pygmy hippo and giant tortoise bones on the margins of shallow ponds, and giant tortoise carapace under overhanging limestone outcrops (Appendix-Results-Survey, Fig. S3). A high proportion of surface bone failed 14C analysis (~ 55%, Table S1), yet the successfully analyzed specimens (n = 8) span up to 3390–3220 calibrated years before present (cal BP, PSUAMS 8681, 3150 ± 15 14C BP, a hippo molar). Pond deposits that are relatively deep include bones that cover a relatively long period of time (Figs. S14–S16, Dataset S6). This span ranges from ~ 6000 years at TAMP (~ 120 cm deep) to ~ 2500 years at ANDR (~ 100 cm deep), with the oldest bones present in the fossiliferous sedimentary zone 3 and scarce bones in the overlying clay (zone 2).Zone 3Most bones in this layer are relatively intact and include readily identifiable pygmy hippo long bones and cranial fragments (e.g., Fig. S13a,f), giant tortoise carapace and plastron fragments (Fig. S13d), ratite eggshell and long bones (Fig. S13c,m), and crocodile scutes, cranial fragments, and teeth (Fig. S13b). Scarce bones of a duck (genus Anas) were recovered at ANDR. Remains of subfossil lemurs were scarce or absent, but they may be represented by an unknown type of bone fragment identified through protein fingerprinting (ANDR-1-5-55, Dataset S3). The widespread success of collagen extraction from these bones attests to the excellent preservation of organics in this zone. ANKA also includes keratin (mostly in the form of crocodile claws, e.g., Fig. S13i), as well as two rounded agates found associated with ratite eggshell (Fig. S13m).Remains of a juvenile pygmy hippo were recovered from both TAMP and ANDR (a femur and tibia, respectively, Dataset S3). The epiphyses of some of the pygmy hippo long bones have gnaw marks (Fig. S13f), and none of the bones include chop marks. In association with these bones towards the top of this zone are some large ( > 1 cm diameter) charcoal fragments and scarce bones of bushpig (Fig. S13k) and zebu (Fig. S13e). Protein fingerprinting identified a screened fragment of a non-zebu bovid in ANKA zone 3 and confirmed that a tentatively identified bushpig canine fragment (ANKA 1-4-151) belonged to a hippo. This zone at TAMP and ANDR also includes occasional mangrove whelk (Terebralia palustris) shells (Fig. S13g). These whelks currently live at least ~ 500 m distant from these ponds, and whelk shells at ANDR each have an irregular hole above the operculum.The span of time represented by bones in zone 3 ranges up to ~ 4000 years (~ 6000–2000 cal BP at TAMP, Fig. S14). Confirmed introduced animal bones from zone 3 failed direct 14C analysis. There are multiple examples of directly 14C-dated bone in close stratigraphic association that nonetheless differ in age by  > 1000 years, and there are a couple of examples of bones from the same individual that are separated stratigraphically. For example, two giant tortoise carapace and plastron fragments from TAMP that have indistinguishable 14C ages are separated by 22 cm of sediment (PSUAMS 8670 comes from 112 cm depth, and PSUAMS 8668 comes from 90 cm depth).Although ANKA produced what is thus far the oldest directly 14C dated pygmy hippo bone from a coastal subfossil site (PSUAMS 9383, 4380 ± 25 BP, 5030–4840 cal BP), the mean calibrated age of hippos from the Tampolove excavations (n = 11, x̄ = 2858 cal BP, SD = 972 yr) is significantly less than that of the giant tortoises (n = 9, x̄ = 4582 cal BP, SD = 705 yr, t(18) = − 4.4, p  2000 years older than a closely associated charcoal sample (38 cm depth, PSUAMS 8849, 575 ± 30 14C BP, 630–510 cal BP), which makes this molar comparable in age to bone from zone 3. Consequently, the youngest directly 14C-dated ancient bone from the Tampolove excavations comes from the lowermost zone 3: a pygmy hippo’s vertebra recovered at 90 cm depth at TAMP (PSUAMS 8730, 1865 ± 15 14C BP, 1819–1705 cal BP). Though poorly constrained in time, the deposition of zone 2 sediment came sometime within the past two millennia, which witnessed marine regression and dry intervals recorded in both the δ18O record of a nearby speleothem27 and the salinization of a nearby pan36. Previously directly 14C-dated bone collected around Tampolove attests to the local persistence of at least pygmy hippos and giant tortoises until the start of the last millennium (n = 15), and an atlas from Lamboara/Lamboharana is in fact the most recent confidently dated pygmy hippo bone from the island (PSUAMS 5629, 1100 ± 15 14C BP, 980–930 cal BP).Figure 4Cutmarked pygmy hippo femur recovered from Tampolove during recent excavation at ~ 40 cm depth (TAMP-1-2-61, above), and previously-recovered and directly 14C-dated (~ 3500 and 1600 cal BP37) cutmarked pygmy hippo femora from the nearby site of Lamboara/Lamboharana that are currently housed in the National Museum of Natural History in Paris (MAD 1709 & MAD 1710, below). Four views highlight three locations of cutmarks on the broken shaft of TAMP-1-2-61, and the inset frames show 20 × magnification of these areas, with corresponding orientations given by red lines. Note that the false color insets of TAMP-1-2-61 are meant to highlight linear edges and crevices, and the overview photos of all three femur fragments are on the same scale.Full size imageZone 1A fragment of iron (from TAMP, 16 cm depth) and sparse ceramic fragments (from ANKA, 3 & 9 cm depth) are present only in zone 1, and three 14C dates from TAMP and ANKA suggest that these specimens span the past ~ 200 years (Figs. S14–S15).CharcoalThe directly 14C dated charcoal spans all three stratigraphic zones yet consistently dates to the past millennium (Figs. S14–16). Multiple charcoal samples from different excavated ponds have practically indistinguishable 14C ages (Table S2), and much of the charcoal from Tampolove formed during peaks in the deposition of macrocharcoal at nearby Namonte (17 km distant; Fig. 5A). The onset of directly 14C-dated charcoal deposition approximately coincides with a decrease in Asafora speleothem δ18O values and with multiple directly 14C-dated first and final local occurrences of large animals. While directly 14C dated charcoal is limited to the past millennium, microcharcoal particles were abundant in all TAMP sediment samples (x̄ ± SD = 2.0 × 106 ± 2.8 × 106 particles). Additionally, microcharcoal is relatively abundant near the bottom of TAMP and ANKA, which contains bones that span ~ 6000–2000 cal BP (Fig. 5B).Figure 5Records of fire, drought, and faunal turnover from the vicinity of Tampolove within the past 1200 years, with dashed horizontal lines for reference (5A), and macrocharcoal concentrations from the excavated ponds, with depth intervals containing directly 14C-dated charcoal that spans the past millennium marked in red (5B). The past 1200 years includes the entire summed calibrated distribution of the 10 directly dated prebomb charcoal fragments from the Tampolove excavations. The calibrated probability distributions associated with the latest dates from endemic megafauna bone (giant tortoises and pygmy hippos) and earliest dates from introduced animal bone (zebu cattle and bushpigs) are shown as black distributions, and 95% of each distribution is bracketed. Considering directly dated remains within the past 4 ka from hippos (n = 26), giant tortoises (n = 18), and zebu (n = 9) and the assumption that bones were deposited uniformly over time, the grey distributions and bracketed 95% credible intervals give estimates of extirpation and arrival times. As in Fig. 3, the red line on the Asafora record follows from BCPA.Full size image More

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