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Basic characteristics of river sedimentsA considerable variation was found in the distribution of clay (81 to 48.4 g kg−1), silt (145 to 656 g kg−1), and sand (38 to 821 g kg−1) particles among sediment materials. The associated coefficient of variations (CV) was 57, 59.5, and 41%, respectively. Statistical data related to the physicochemical properties of sediments and their main elements are reported in Table 2. The variations in particle size distribution located sediment material in seven textural classes ranging from loamy sand to silty clay. The high variability in particle size distribution suggests that different sets of geogenic and anthropogenic processes are enacted in the development and distribution of sediments in the rivers. The pH and CCE ranged from 7.4 to 8.2 and 31 to 251 g kg−1, respectively, indicating the dominancy of alkaline-calcareous condition. None of the sediment samples exhibited salinity conditions (EC  > 4 dS m−1) with EC in the range of 0.3 to 1.4 dS m−1. A relatively low range of OM was found in all samples ranging from 7 to 61 g kg−1 with a mean value of 19 g kg−1. This range of OM coincides with the corresponding values in regional soils47. Except for pH, other sediments properties demonstrated above 35% of CV illustrating a wide range of variability in sediments’ physicochemical properties across the study rivers.Table 2 Summary statistics of sediment properties.Full size tableThe highest concentration among major elements was observed in SiO2, varying between 37.5 and 55.2%, with a mean percentage of 44.9%. This element followed in magnitude by Al2O3 (8.9–15.9%), CaO (5–14.3%), Fe2O3 (4.8–10%), MgO (2.4–17.2%), K2O (1.2–3.1%), Na2O (0.68–2.7%), SO3 (0.01–4.8% g kg−1) (Table 2). Considering the semi-arid climatic condition of the study region, higher levels of SiO2 and lower levels of Al2O3 may indicate that the silicate minerals forming the sediments of the area have not been subjected to severe weathering processes. Likewise, the Na2/K2O ratio was greater than 1 in the majority of sediment samples, implying an enrichment of potassium feldspar and the relatively intense weathering of Na-bearing minerals in the region48,49. The CIA value was in the range of 64.9 to 85.7% with a mean percentage of 72.9%, representing a moderate chemical weathering intensity of lithological materials (65%  Pb  > Cu  > Cd which varied largely among the sampling points. The level of Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, and Ni varied in the ranges of 32.6–87.5, 14.2–33.3, 0.42–4.8, 14.5–69.5, and 20.1–183.5 mg kg-1, respectively, for winter, and 35.3–92.5, 15.6–35.1, 0.47–5.1, 15.5–73.1, 23.2–188.3 mg kg−1 for summer. The obtained ranges are comparable with data found in previous studies in Asia4,54,55,54.Figure 2The comparison of the mean concentration of Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, and Ni elements in the study rivers’ sediments during summer and winter. Different letters show significant differences in metal content among rivers pooled over seasons at P  More

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