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Forest Advanced Computing and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (FACAI), Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USAJingjing Liang, Mo Zhou & Akane O. AbbasiForestry Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, ItalyJavier G. P. Gamarra & Antonello SalisGIP ECOFOR, Paris, FranceNicolas PicardDepartment of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USABryan Pijanowski, Douglass F. Jacobs & Minjee ParkInstitute for Global Change Biology, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USAPeter B. ReichDepartment of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USAPeter B. ReichHawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, AustraliaPeter B. ReichCrowther Lab, Department of Environmental Systems Science, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, SwitzerlandThomas W. CrowtherWageningen Environmental Research, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, NetherlandsGert-Jan NabuursForest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, NetherlandsGert-Jan Nabuurs, Frans Bongers, Mathieu Decuyper, Marc Parren, Lourens Poorter & Douglas SheilDepartment of Crop and Forest Sciences, University of Lleida, Lleida, SpainSergio de-MiguelJoint Research Unit CTFC—Agrotecnio—CERCA, Solsona, SpainSergio de-Miguel & Albert MoreraInstitute of Ecology and Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes of the Ministry of Education, College of Urban and Evironmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, ChinaJingyun FangNorthern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Durham, NH, USAChristopher W. WoodallCenter for Biodiversity Dynamics in a Changing World (BIOCHANGE), Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DenmarkJens-Christian SvenningSection for Ecoinformatics and Biodiversity, Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DenmarkJens-Christian SvenningSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UKTommaso JuckerTERRA Teaching and Research Centre, Gembloux Agro Bio-Tech, University of Liege, Gembloux, BelgiumJean-Francois BastinManaaki Whenua Landcare Research, Lincoln, New ZealandSusan K. WiserEnvironmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Brunei DarussalamFerry SlikCentre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, Montpellier, FranceBruno HéraultINP-HB (Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouet-Boigny), University of Montpellier, Yamoussoukro, Ivory CoastBruno HéraultDepartment of Agricultural, Food, Environmental and Animal Sciences, University of Udine, Udine, ItalyGiorgio AlbertiFaculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bolzano, Bolzano, ItalyGiorgio AlbertiInstitute of Bioeconomy, CNR, Sesto, ItalyGiorgio AlbertiNatural and Built Environments Research Centre, School of Natural and Built Environments, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, AustraliaGunnar KeppelBiometris, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, NetherlandsGeerten M. HengeveldWageningen University & Research, Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group, Wageningen, NetherlandsGeerten M. HengeveldCentre for Econics and Ecosystem Management, Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development, Eberswalde, GermanyPierre L. IbischSchool of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food & Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USACarlos A. Silva, Eben N. Broadbent & Carine KlaubergNaturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, NetherlandsHans ter SteegeInstituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Santa Cruz, ArgentinaPablo L. PeriDepartment of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UKDavid A. CoomesFaculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, CanadaEric B. Searle & Han Y. H. ChenUniversity of Göttingen, Göttingen, GermanyKlaus von GadowBeijing Forestry University, Beijing, ChinaKlaus von GadowUniversity of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South AfricaKlaus von GadowBiałowieża Geobotanical Station, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Białowieża, PolandBogdan JaroszewiczSwiss National Forest Inventory/Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, SwitzerlandMeinrad AbeggUFR Biosciences, University Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Abidjan, Ivory CoastYves C. Adou Yao & Anny E. N’GuessanEnvironmental Change Institute, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, UKJesús Aguirre-GutiérrezBiodiversity Dynamics, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, NetherlandsJesús Aguirre-GutiérrezCenter for Latin American Studies, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USAAngelica M. Almeyda ZambranoInstitute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Trebon, Czech RepublicJan Altman & Jiri DolezalFaculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague, Praha-Suchdol, Czech RepublicJan Altman & Miroslav SvobodaEscuela ECAPMA, National Open University and Distance (Colombia) | UNAD, Bogotá, ColombiaEsteban Alvarez-DávilaDepartamento de Ingeniería Agroforestal, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, SpainJuan Gabriel Álvarez-GonzálezCenter for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USALuciana F. AlvesUniversité Jean Lorougnon Guédé, Daloa, Ivory CoastBienvenu H. K. AmaniUniversité Officielle de Bukavu, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of CongoChristian A. AmaniSilviculture and Forest Ecology of the Temperate Zones, University of Göttingen, Goettingen, GermanyChristian Ammer & Peter SchallInstitut National pour l’Etude et la Recherche Agronomiques, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of CongoBhely Angoboy IlondeaNorwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Division of Forestry and Forest Resources, Ås, NorwayClara Antón-FernándezEuropean Commission, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, ItalyValerio AvitabileCompensation International Progress S.A., Bogotá, ColombiaGerardo A. AymardLaboratory of Applied Ecology, University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, BeninAkomian F. AzihouScientific Services, South African National Parks, Knysna, South AfricaJohan A. Baard & Graham P. DurrheimSchool of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, UKTimothy R. Baker, Simon L. Lewis & Oliver L. PhillipsDepartment of Geomatics, Forest Research Institute, Sekocin Stary, Raszyn, PolandRadomir Balazy & Krzysztof J. StereńczakProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, USAMeredith L. BastianDepartment of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USAMeredith L. BastianDepartment of Environment, Universtité du Cinquantenaire de Lwiro, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of CongoRodrigue BatumikeDepartment of Environment, Ghent University, Ghent, BelgiumMarijn BautersDepartment of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Ghent, BelgiumMarijn Bauters & Pascal BoeckxService of Wood Biology, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, BelgiumHans Beeckman, Thales de Haulleville & Wannes HubauBalai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan, Manokwari, IndonesiaNithanel Mikael Hendrik Benu & Relawan KuswandiInstitute of Tropical Forest Conservation, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, UgandaRobert BitarihoUniversité de Liège, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Gembloux, BelgiumJan Bogaert & Thales de HaullevilleIntegrated Center for Research, Development and Innovation in Advanced Materials, Nanotechnologies, and Distributed Systems for Fabrication and Control (MANSiD), University Stefan cel Mare of Suceava, Suceava, RomaniaOlivier BouriaudDepartment of Forestry Sciences, ‘Luiz de Queiroz’ College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, BrazilPedro H. S. Brancalion, Ricardo G. César & Vanessa S. MorenoBavarian State Institute of Forestry, Freising, GermanySusanne BrandlDepartment of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UKFrancis Q. Brearley, Giacomo Sellan & Martin J. P. SullivanFacultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Durango, MexicoJaime Briseno-Reyes, José Javier Corral-Rivas & Daniel José Vega-NievaInstitute of Biology and Botanical Garden, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), GermanyHelge BruelheideGerman Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, GermanyHelge BruelheideDevelopment Economics Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NetherlandsErwin BulteRosen Center for Advanced Computing (RCAC), Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USAAnn Christine Catlin, Lev Gorenstein, Geoffrey Lentner & Xiao ZhuDepartment of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences (BiGeA), University of Bologna, Bologna, ItalyRoberto Cazzolla GattiInstitute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, SwitzerlandChelsea ChisholmIFER – Institute of Forest Ecosystem Research, Jilove u Prahy, Czech RepublicEmil CiencialaGlobal Change Research Institute of the CAS, Brno, Czech RepublicEmil CiencialaPrograma de Pós-graduação em Biologia Vegetal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas CEP, Biologia, BrazilGabriel D. CollettaDirección Nacional de Bosques (DNB), Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible (MAyDS), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, ArgentinaAnibal CuchiettiDepartment of International Environment and Development Studies (Noragric), Faculty of Landscape and Society, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås, NorwayAida Cuni-SanchezDepartment of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, UKAida Cuni-SanchezDepartment of Environmental Science, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University-AP, Guntur, IndiaJavid A. DarDepartment of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Madhya Pradesh, IndiaJavid A. Dar & Subashree KothandaramanDepartment of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, IndiaJavid A. Dar, Subashree Kothandaraman, Narayanaswamy Parthasarathy & Somaiah SundarapandianCentre for Structural and Functional Genomics & Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science, Biology Department, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaSelvadurai DayanandanDepartment of Ecology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech RepublicSylvain Delabye, Stepan Janecek, Yannick Klomberg, Vincent Maicher & Robert TropekBiology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, Ceske Budejovice, Czech RepublicSylvain Delabye, Tom M. Fayle, Vincent Maicher & Robert TropekCirad, UMR EcoFoG (AgroParistech, CNRS, Inrae, Université des Antilles, Université de la Guyane), Campus Agronomique, Kourou, French GuianaGéraldine Derroire, Aurélie Dourdain & Eric MarconDepartment of Geography, Environment and Geomatics, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, CanadaBen DeVriesNational Forest Authority, Kampala, UgandaJohn DiisiDepartment of Silviculture Foundation, Silviculture Research Institute, Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, Hanoi, VietnamTran Van DoDepartment of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Bohemia, Czech RepublicJiri DolezalIPHAMETRA, IRET, CENAREST, Libreville, GabonNestor Laurier Engone ObiangFaculté de Gestion de Ressources Naturelles Renouvelables, Université de Kisangani, Kisangani, Democratic Republic of CongoCorneille E. N. Ewango, Faustin M. Mbayu & Eric Katembo WasingyaQueensland Herbarium, Department of Environment and Science, Toowong, Queensland, AustraliaTeresa J. Eyre, Victor J. Neldner & Michael R. NgugiSchool of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UKTom M. FayleDepartment of Plant Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, CameroonLethicia Flavine N. Feunang, Banoho L. P. R. Kabelong, Moses B. Libalah, Louis N. Nforbelie, Emile Narcisse N. Njila & Melanie C. NyakoNatural Resources Institute Finland, Joensuu, FinlandLeena FinérInstitute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, SwitzerlandMarkus FischerDepartment of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umea, SwedenJonas Fridman & Bertil WesterlundResearch and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach, San Michele all’Adige, ItalyLorenzo Frizzera, Damiano Gianelle & Mirco RodeghieroHerbário Dr. Roberto Miguel Klein, Universidade Regional de Blumenau, Blumenau, BrazilAndré L. de GasperGlick Designs, LLC, Hadley, MA, USAHenry B. GlickCIIDIR Durango, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Durango, MexicoMaria Socorro Gonzalez-ElizondoDépartement des Sciences et Technologies de l’Environnement, Université du Burundi, Bujumbura, BurundiRichard HabonayoFaculté des Sciences, Evolutionary Biology and Ecology Unit, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, BelgiumOlivier J. HardyRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UKDavid J. Harris & Axel Dalberg PoulsenDepartment of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UKAndrew HectorDepartment of Plant Systematics, Bayreuth University, Bayreuth, GermanyAndreas HempHelmholtz GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section 1.4 Remote Sensing and Geoinformatics, Potsdam, GermanyMartin HeroldWild Chimpanzee Foundation, Liberia Representation, Monrovia, LiberiaAnnika HillersCentre for Conservation Science, The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy, UKAnnika HillersDepartment of Environment, Laboratory for Wood Technology (UGent-Woodlab), Ghent University, Ghent, BelgiumWannes HubauAMAP, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, Montpellier, FranceThomas IbanezDepartment of Forest Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanNobuo ImaiBiology Department, Université Officielle de Bukavu, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of CongoGerard ImaniInstitute of Dendrology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kórnik, PolandAndrzej M. Jagodzinski & Jacek OleksynPoznan University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Department of Game Management and Forest Protection, Poznan, PolandAndrzej M. JagodzinskiDepartment of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DenmarkVivian Kvist Johannsen & Sebastian Kepfer-RojasPlant Biology Department, Biology Institute, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, BrazilCarlos A. JolyDepartment of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USABlaise JumbamInstitute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), Nkolbisson, Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation, Yaounde, CameroonBlaise JumbamDepartment of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DenmarkGoytom Abraha KahsayForestry Faculty, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Mytischi, RussiaViktor Karminov & Olga MartynenkoIntegrative Research Center, The Field Museum, Chicago, IL, USAKuswata KartawinataLabo Botanique, Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Abidjan, Ivory CoastJustin N. KassiComputational and Applied Vegetation Ecology Lab, Ghent University, Ghent, BelgiumElizabeth Kearsley & Hans VerbeeckDepartment of Physical and Environmental Sciences, Colorado Mesa University, Grand Junction, CO, USADeborah K. KennardDepartment of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidalaya (A Central University), Sagar, IndiaMohammed Latif KhanKenya Forestry Research Institute, Department of Forest Resource Assessment, Nairobi, KenyaJohn N. KigomoDepartment of Forest Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of KoreaHyun Seok KimInterdisciplinary Program in Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of KoreaHyun Seok KimNational Center for Agro Meteorology, Seoul, Republic of KoreaHyun Seok KimResearch Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of KoreaHyun Seok KimInstitute of Forestry and Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, EstoniaHenn Korjus & Mait LangInternational Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, AustriaFlorian Kraxner, Dmitry Schepaschenko & Anatoly Z. ShvidenkoDepartment of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, IndiaAmit KumarTartu Observatory, University of Tartu, Tõravere, EstoniaMait LangSchool of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South AfricaMichael J. LawesDepartment of Forest Engineering, Federal University of Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa, BrazilRodrigo V. LeiteDepartment of Geography, University College London, London, UKSimon L. LewisPlant Systematics and Ecology Laboratory (LaBosystE), Higher Teacher’s Training College, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, CameroonMoses B. LibalahLaboratoire d’Écologie et Aménagement Forestier, Département d’Ecologie et de Gestion des Ressources Végétales, Université de Kisangani, Kisangani, Democratic Republic of CongoJanvier LisingoInstituto de Silvicultura e Industria de la Madera, Universidad Juarez del Estado de Durango, Durango, MexicoPablito Marcelo López-Serrano & Maria Guadalupe Nava-MirandaFaculty of Forestry, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, ChinaHuicui LuCenter for Forest Ecology and Productivity RAS (CEPF RAS), Moscow, RussiaNatalia V. LukinaDepartment of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Silkeborg, DenmarkAnne Mette LykkeNicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC, USAVincent Maicher & John R. PoulsenDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USABrian S. MaitnerAgroParisTech, UMR AMAP, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, Montpellier, FranceEric MarconUniversity of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, AustraliaAndrew R. MarshallUniversity of York, York, UKAndrew R. MarshallFlamingo Land Ltd., North Yorkshire, UKAndrew R. MarshallDepartment of Wildlife Management, College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, TanzaniaEmanuel H. MartinKenya Forestry Research Institute, Headquarters, Nairobi, KenyaMusingo T. E. MbuviDepartamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, MexicoJorge A. MeaveEcology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USACory MerowDepartment of Forest Management and Forest Economics, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, PolandStanislaw MiscickiTropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, AustraliaSharif A. Mukul & Alain S. K. NguteFieldstation Fabrikschleichach, Julius-Maximilians University Würzburg, Würzburg, GermanyJörg C. MüllerBavarian Forest Nationalpark, Grafenau, GermanyJörg C. MüllerFakultas Kehutanan, Universitas Papua, Jalan Gunung Salju Amban, Manokwari Papua Barat, IndonesiaAgustinus MurdjokoLimbe Botanic Garden, Limbe, CameroonLitonga Elias NdiveInstitute of Forestry, Belgrade, SerbiaRadovan V. NevenicTropical Plant Exploration Group (TroPEG), Buea, CameroonMichael L. Ngoh & Moses Nsanyi SaingeDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USAMichael L. NgohApplied Biology and Ecology Research Unit, University of Dschang, Dschang, CameroonAlain S. K. NguteDepartment of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USAThomas O. OchuodhoUQAM, Centre for Forest Research, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaAlain PaquetteV.N. Sukachev Forest Institute of FRC KSC SB RAS, Krasnoyarsk, RussiaElena I. Parfenova, Dmitry Schepaschenko & Nadja TchebakovaUrban Management and Planning, School of Social Sciences, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, AustraliaSebastian PfautschInstituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia—INPA, Grupo Ecologia. Monitoramento e Uso Sustentável de Áreas Úmidas MAUA, Manaus, BrazilMaria T. F. Piedade, Jochen Schöngart & Natalia TarghettaCentro de Formação em Ciências Agroflorestais, Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, Ilhéus, BrazilDaniel Piotto & Samir G. RolimDepartment of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, University of Firenze, Firenze, ItalyMartina Pollastrini & Federico SelviTechnical University of Munich, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Chair of Forest Growth and Yield Science, Munich, GermanyHans PretzschCentro Agricoltura, Alimenti, Ambiente, University of Trento, San Michele all’Adige, ItalyMirco RodeghieroDepartment of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, ItalyFrancesco RoveroMUSE—Museo delle Scienze, Trento, ItalyFrancesco RoveroInfoflora c/o Botanical Garden of Geneva, Geneva, SwitzerlandErvan RutishauserAgricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands (RIFR), Tehran, IranKhosro Sagheb-TalebiDepartment of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, IndiaPurabi SaikiaInstitute of International Education Scholar Rescue Fund (IIE-SRF), One World Trade Center, New York, NY, USAMoses Nsanyi SaingeCentro de Modelación y Monitoreo de Ecosistemas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, ChileChristian Salas-EljatibVicerrectoría de Investigación y Postgrado, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, ChileChristian Salas-EljatibDepartamento de Silvicultura y Conservación de la Naturaleza, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, ChileChristian Salas-EljatibРeoples Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, RussiaDmitry SchepaschenkoUniversity of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Freiburg, GermanyMichael Scherer-LorenzenInstitution with City, Department of Geography, University of Zurich, Zurich, SwitzerlandBernhard SchmidNational Forest Centre, Zvolen, Slovak RepublicVladimír ŠebeňCNRS-UMR LEEISA, Campus Agronomique, Kourou, French GuianaGiacomo SellanUniversite de Lorraine, AgroParisTech, INRA, Nancy, FranceJosep M. Serra-DiazCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Situ Gede, Bogor Barat, IndonesiaDouglas SheilCirad, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, FrancePlinio SistUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Departamento de Ecologia, Natal, BrazilAlexandre F. SouzaSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UKMike D. SwaineHerbarium Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, London, UKLiam A. TrethowanFaculté des Sciences Appliquées, Université de Mbujimayi, Mbujimayi, Democratic Republic of CongoJohn Tshibamba MukendiYale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, CT, USAPeter Mbanda UmunayUral State Forest Engineering University, Botanical Garden, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg, RussiaVladimir A. UsoltsevDIBAF Department, Tuscia University, Viterbo, ItalyGaia Vaglio Laurin & Riccardo ValentiniLINCGlobal, MNCN, CSIC, Madrid, SpainFernando ValladaresPlant Ecology and Nature Conservation Group, Wageningen University, AA Wageningen, NetherlandsFons van der PlasAgricultural High School, ESAV, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, IPV, Viseu, PortugalHelder VianaCentre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, CITAB, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, Vila Real, PortugalHelder VianaDepartment of Forest Engineering, Universidade Regional de Blumenau, Blumenau, BrazilAlexander C. VibransNucleo de Estudos e Pesquisas Ambientais, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas (UNICAMP), SP, Campinas, BrazilSimone A. VieiraInternational Center for Tropical Botany, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USAJason VleminckxForest Research Institute, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, AustraliaCatherine E. WaiteSanya Nanfan Research Institute, Hainan Yazhou Bay Seed Laboratory, Hainan University, Sanya, ChinaHua-Feng Wang & Zhi-Xin ZhuKenya Forestry Research Institute, Taita Taveta Research Centre, Wundanyi, KenyaChemuku WekesaDepartment of Wetland Ecology, Institute for Geography and Geoecology, Karlsruhe Institute for Technology, Rastatt, GermanyFlorian WittmannDepartment of Forest Management, Centre for Agricultural Research in Suriname, Paramaribo, SurinameVerginia WortelPolish State Forests-Coordination Centre for Environmental Projects, Warsaw, PolandTomasz Zawiła-NiedźwieckiResearch Center of Forest Management Engineering of State Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, ChinaChunyu Zhang & Xiuhai ZhaoDepartment of Statistics, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USAJun ZhuInstitut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët-Boigny, DFR Eaux, Forêts et Environnement, BP, Yamoussoukro, Ivory CoastIrie C. Zo-BiCentre for Invasion Biology, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South AfricaCang HuiAfrican Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Muizenberg, South AfricaCang HuiConceptualization: J. Liang and C.H. Methodology: J. Liang, C.H., J.G.P.G. and N. Picard. Data coordination: J. Liang, M.Z., S.d.-M., T.W.C., G.-J.N., P.B.R., F. Slik, K.v.G., J.G.P.G. and N. Picard. Writing, revision and editing: all. More

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Study areaThere is a long history of diversified cropping patterns due to the climatic and topographic complexity in China4. Cropping intensity increases from north to south, and multiple cropping dominates in regions south of 400N4. For example, multiple cropping systems of double rice and winter wheat plus maize are popular in the Middle-lower Yangtze river plain and the Huang-Huai-Hai plain, respectively (Fig. 1)22. Three staple crops, maize, paddy rice, and wheat, are widely distributed across the country (Figure S1). These three major crops contributed to more than half (57.08%) of the total sown area in China in 2020 (http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/).Fig. 1The distribution map of cropping patterns in 2021, 9 agricultural regions and validation sites in China. Notes: A to I represented nine agricultural regions in China. (A) Middle-lower Yangtze River Plain; (B) Huang-Huai-Hai plain; (C) Northeast China; (D) Inner Mongolia and along the Great Wall; (E) Loess plateau; (F) Southwest China; (G) Southern China; (H) Gansu-Xinjiang region; (I) Qinghai-Tibet region.Full size imageMODIS images and pre-processingWe used the 500 m 8-day composite Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) surface reflectance products (MOD09A1) from 2015 to 2021. Three spectral indices were calculated: the 2-band Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI2)23, LSWI16, and Normalized Multi-band Drought Index (NMDI)24 (Fig. 2). The functions of EVI2, LSWI, and NMDI are provided in Eqs. 1–3 as follows.$${rm{EVI2}}=2.5times left({rho }_{NIR}-{rho }_{{rm{Red}}}right)/left({rho }_{NIR}+2.4times {rho }_{{rm{Red}}}+1right)$$
(1)
$${rm{LSWI}}=left({rho }_{NIR}-{rho }_{SWIR6}right)/left({rho }_{NIR}+{rho }_{SWIR6}right)$$
(2)
$$NMDI=frac{{rho }_{NIR}-left({rho }_{SWIR6}-{rho }_{SWIR7}right)}{{rho }_{NIR}+left({rho }_{SWIR6}-{rho }_{SWIR7}right)}$$
(3)
where, ρNIR, ρRed, ρSWIR6 and ρSWIR7 represented the surface reflectance values from the red (620–670 nm), Near-infrared (841–875 nm), short wave infrared band centered at 1640 nm (1628–1652 nm) and 2130 nm (2105–2155 nm), respectively.Fig. 2The workflow of the methodology: Data preprocessing, deriving cropping intensity, mapping three staple crops and obtaining annual maps of cropping patterns in China.Full size imageFor each spectral index (EVI2, LSWI, and NMDI), a daily continuous time series was developed based on the cloud-free observations using the Whittaker Smoother (WS)25. The WS smoother performed well in multiple cropping regions and therefore was applied here26.Validation data and other datasetsThe validation data in this study included the ground truth reference data and agricultural census data. The ground truth reference data were collected in major agricultural regions with GPS receivers and digital cameras during the study period (2015–2021) (Fig. 1, Table S1). For each sampling site, the geographic location and crop types were recorded. The reliability of ground survey data was improved through visual confirmation based on high-resolution images in Google Earth. Some reference sites with small field sizes were removed to considering the mixed-pixel problems of MODIS images. Finally, we obtained a total of 18,379 ground samples collected during 2015–2021 (Table S1). All the ground truth reference data were used to validate the cropping pattern data in its corresponding year. Agricultural census data were obtained from the National Statistical Bureau of China (NSBC) (http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/), which was collected through sampling statistics. The crop calendar data from agro-meteorological stations recorded the sowing, seedling, tillering, heading, and harvesting dates of winter wheat (210 sites) or spring wheat (90 sites). The calendar data were applied to establish the trend surfaces of key phenological stages of winter wheat and spring wheat, respectively. The crop calendar data were provided by the National Meteorological Information Center, China Meteorological Administration.The cropland distribution data were derived from the 30 m GlobeLand30 global land cover data in 202027. The total accuracy of GlobeLand30 in 2020 is 85.72%, and the Kappa coefficient is 0.82 (www.globallandcover.com). To correspond to MODIS images, the 30 m cropland pixels from GlobeLand30 data were spatially aggregated to a 500 m cropland fraction map. For simplification, we classified pixel purity of MODIS pixels into three groups: cropland percentages of >90%, 50–90%, and More

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