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Massive drift of pumice along the northeastern coast of Okinawa IslandA large amount of pumice stones reached and was deposited along the northeastern coast of Okinawa Island, that were brought by strong seasonal northeasterly winds (Supplementary Video 1). The pumice was thought to be brought by the Kuroshio countercurrent from sites near the Ogasawara Archipelago 1300 km away. Because the Kuroshio countercurrent is composed of various medium-sized eddies in the ocean, the current does not always flow in one direction and as a continuous flow27,28. The pumice drift was more strongly controlled by the seasonal northwesterly winds to be transported to Okinawa across the Philippine Sea (Fig. 1a). The pumice raft reached the northern part of Okinawa approximately 2 months after the eruption (Figs. 2, 3 and 4). According to a very recent report, the pumice clasts were drifting ashore in Thailand (traveling 4000 km-long distance) across the South China Sea within half a year of this eruption29. Most pumice stones were gray, but some pumice was banded, and others were black reflecting some compositional variation25,29 (Fig. 2d,e). The Kuroshio Current is faster than the Kuroshio countercurrent27, so some pumice clasts have already reached the main island of Japan25. Tracking the dispersal of the pumice will allow a better forecasting model based on observed raft trajectories by considering exact wind effects in the Philippine Sea30.Figure 2An example of a natural beach on Okinawa Island where pumice has washed ashore. (a) Appearance of natural sandy beaches on the northern part of Okinawa Island (Ibu beach, Kunigami Village, 26°75′57.88″ N, 128°32′23.32″ E). Photo was taken on 24 October 2021. Pumice drifted onto the sandy beach and formed a striped pattern. The white-capped waves indicate on the place where the reef edge exist. The white arrow points to the mangrove river estuary corresponding to Fig. 9. (b) Estimation of the pumice sedimentation depth on the original sand beach surface. (c) The high tide zone of the natural sandy beach is covered with pumice pebbles and stones. Yellow arrows indicate black pumice stones. Scale bar: 10 cm. (d, e) Front and back of examples of relatively large pumice stones from the same beach. The left image is mostly light brown, whereas the right image is almost black. Scale bars: 5 cm.Full size imageFigure 3Short-term migration of pumice from beaches as revealed by stationary observations. These four photos were taken at two sites on northern Okinawa Island on two consecutive days, 23 and 24 October 2021. (a, b) A sandy beach along the Sate Coast (26°78′84.56″ N, 128°22′30.57″ E). It was windy on the first day, and pumice stones were washed up with the waves. Almost all the pumice stones were removed from the beach and transported offshore on the following day. The black arrow in photo (a) indicates Cape Hedo, the northernmost tip of Okinawa Island. (c, d) At this gravelly beach (26°80′83.25″ N, 128°23′38.56″ E), pumice fully covers the seawall on the first day, but all of the pumice stones washed away, leaving the original gravels, on the following day. The white arrow in each photo indicates an identical marker stone placed on the beach. Weather data of northern Okinawa (https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/daily_a1.php?prec_no=91&block_no=0901&year=2021&month=10&day=23&view=g_wsp) and tidal data (Naha: 26°13′ N, 127°40′ E) (https://www.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/kaiyou/db/tide/genbo/genbo.php) are provided by Japan Meteorological Agency.Full size imageFigure 4Pumice stones settled by marine organisms. (a) Pumice collected from Ibu beach on 31 October 2021. Two marine benthos coexist close together on a pumice stone. Scale bar: 1 cm. (b) Enlarged image of the Lepas barnacle. Scale bar: 3 mm. (c) Enlarged image of the bryozoan. Scale bar: 3 mm. (d) Stereo microscopic image of pumice pebbles of a few millimeters in diameter collected from Ibu beach on 15 January 2022. The light brown coloration indicates some algal/cyanobacterial growth on the pumice. Scale bar 1 mm. (e) Red autofluorescence was detected from pumice pebbles. Image corresponds to (d). Autofluorescence from microalgae was confirmed by Supplementary Fig. 2. Scale bar 1 mm. (f) Enlarged image of the center of the figure of (e) shows red autofluorescent signals with a diameter of 10–30 µm. Scale bar: 200 µm.Full size imageChanges in the coastal landscape: natural beaches and estuariesMarine calcifiers, including corals, calcareous algae, and foraminifers, produce white sandy beaches on Okinawa Island. However, the gray pumice drifting ashore changed the white sand beach, especially along the northeastern coastline. We observed several lines of pumice aggregations, suggesting that pumice was brought ashore by wavefronts several times produced by a strong north wind at the tide lines (Supplementary Video 1; Fig. 2a). At the same sampling site, the thickest depth of beached pumice was more than 30 cm (Fig. 2b; Supplementary Video 2). Most of the pumice stones were from 0.5 cm to 3 cm in diameter, with a few black pumice stones included (Fig. 2c: yellow arrow). Pumice stones arrived at the estuaries of some brackish rivers (Fig. 8, Supplementary Fig. 1a) and mangrove forests in northwest Okinawa (Fig. 9).Pumice stones and pumice rafts show dynamic behavior in a short period. We captured photographs 24 h apart at two positions on the shore of Okinawa, which allowed us to compare the pumice dynamics during this period (Fig. 3). Within that time frame, there were two high tides, and the tide level changed by up to 170 cm. As seen in Fig. 3a, on the first day, the coast was covered with pumice, and floating pumice could be seen on the seafront. The north wind was strong that day, as shown by the relatively high waves near the shore as well as white‐crested waves near the reef edge. By the following day, most of the pumice had been moved offshore by tides and winds (Fig. 3b), indicating that newly beached pumice raft deposits were removed quickly from open beach areas. At another site on a gravelly beach, pumice fully covered the seawall on the first day, but almost all of the pumice stones were washed away, leaving the original gravels, on the following day (Fig. 3c,d). Japan Meteorological Agency (Oku station: 232 m above sea level, latitude 26°50.1, longitude 128°16.3′) reported that northerly winds were blowing (mean wind speed: 3.4 m/s) on 23rd October in northern Okinawa. The following day, the wind direction changed to the east-southeast; blowing offshore (mean wind speed: 2.9 m/s), resulting in the dramatic removal of pumice form the coast (Fig. 3). These observations indicate that surface winds rather than ocean currents had a strong influence on the raft trajectory and residence time on beaches, and are consistent with past research5. These observations lead us to expect that the pumice rafts will disappear from the coast of Okinawa fairly quickly, but in fact, there have been many cases where they have come back again in a few days. Although the overall amount of pumice drifting has been decreasing, a small amount of pumice has been drifting in coastal area of Okinawa in May, 202231. It is unlikely that large amounts of pumice will drift repeatedly throughout Okinawa Prefecture as reported in this report, but it should be noted that detached pumice material remains in beach and river runoff.Biofouling of sessile organisms on pumice arriving to OkinawaIt is noteworthy that the pumice rafts traveled over the deep Philippine Sea for over 2 months, and on arrival in Okinawa there was little to no biofouling of the pumice (Fig. 2). Some stranded pumices observed on Okinawa beaches had become habitats for sessile organisms (Fig. 4), as reported in previous studies1,2,3,4,5,6,29. Goose barnacles (Lepas sp.) without external damage to the shell were the most abundant species observed on the pumice (Fig. 4b). Lepas is a common biofouling taxon distributed globally and plays a role in biofouling as a foundation organism. The shell growth rate is more than 1 mm/day in some Lepas species32 suggesting that the Lepas had been growing on the pumice for about two weeks. Measurements of the shell size of Lepas attached to the pumice collections conducted in the same area (Supplementary Video 2) showed a bias toward larger sizes in the second collection (5.92 ± 3.86 mm (average ± S.D.), n = 75, 13 November 2021) than in the first one (3.43 ± 1.08 mm, n = 21, 31 October 2021), and significant differences were detected between the measurement periods (Mann–Whitney U test, p  More

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After the successful protection of Himalayan areas on the border of China and Nepal, we propose that the two nations should create the world’s highest international peace park by combining the Qomolangma and Sagarmatha national parks. This would align with United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 17, to achieve sustainable development through international cooperation (see go.nature.com/3ixmini).
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests. More

Climate change drove evolution, biogeography, and demographyPhylogenetic results (Fig. 1 and Supplementary Fig. 2) confirm previous findings, recovering Aptenodytes (king and emperor penguins) as the sister clade to all other crown penguins, with brush-tailed (Pygoscelis) penguins in turn sister to two clades uniting the banded (Spheniscus) and little (Eudyptula) penguins and the yellow-eyed (Megadyptes) and crested (Eudyptes) penguins6,7,9. Biogeographical reconstructions (Fig. 1, Supplementary Figs. 3–4 and Supplementary Data 1) support a Zealandian origin for penguins6,7. Stem penguins radiated extensively in Zealandia before dispersing to South America and Antarctica multiple times, following the eastward-flowing direction of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) (Fig. 1). Crown penguins most likely arose from descendant lineages in South America, before dispersing back to Zealandia at least three times. Interestingly, at least two such dispersals occurred before the inferred onset of the ACC system, suggesting that early stem penguins were not dependent on currents to disperse over long distances. A second pulse of speciation coincides with the onset of the ACC, though understanding whether this pattern is real or an artifact of fossil sampling requires more collecting from early Eocene localities. We infer an age of ~14 Ma for the origin of crown penguins, which is more recent than the ~24 Ma age recovered in genomic analyses, not including fossil taxa7 (Supplementary Fig. 2b) and coincides with the onset of global cooling during the middle Miocene climate transition4,10 (Supplementary Fig. 3a). This young age suggests that expansion of Antarctic ice sheets and the onset of dispersal vectors such as the Benguela Current11 during the middle to late Miocene facilitated crown penguin dispersal and speciation, as hinted at by fossil evidence12.Incongruences between species trees and gene trees were identified, e.g., alternate topologies occurred at high frequencies ( >10%) for several internal branches (Fig. 1c; Supplementary Fig. 5). These patterns indicate that gene tree discordance may be caused by incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) or introgression events. By quantifying ILS and introgression via branch lengths from over 10,000 gene trees, we found that the rapid speciation within crown penguins was accompanied by >5% ILS content within the ancestors of Spheniscus, Eudyptula, Eudyptes, and several subgroups within Eudyptes (Fig. 2a). Our dated tree provides a temporal framework for this rapid radiation: the four extant Spheniscus taxa are all inferred to have split from one another within the last ~3 Ma, and likewise the nine extant Eudyptes taxa likely split from one another in that same time (Fig. 1b). Many closely related penguin species/lineages are known to hybridize in the wild (see supplementary methods). Consistent with this, multiple analyses suggest that introgression also contributes to species tree—gene tree incongruence (Supplementary Figs. 6–9 and Supplementary Data 2; also see Supplementary Methods for further details). This could explain the most notable conflict in previous phylogenetic results, which showed inconsistency over whether Aptenodytes alone7 or Aptenodytes and Pygoscelis together4,5 represent the sister clade to all other extant penguins. Introgression was detected between the ancestor of Aptenodytes and the ancestor of other extant penguins, and is inferred to have occurred when the range of these ancestors overlapped in South America (Fig. 2a and Supplementary Data 2). Introgression ( >9%) was also detected between Eudyptula novaehollandiae and Eudyptula minor, and several introgression events were especially pervasive in Eudyptes (Fig. 2a and Supplementary Fig. 6).Fig. 2: Incomplete lineage sorting, introgression events, and demographic history among penguins.a Model of incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) and introgression events estimated from QuIBL and hybrid pairwise sequentially Markovian coalescent (hPSMC) results. hPSMC was only run for 20 species pairs (see b). Numbers on branches represent the proportion (%) of ILS (orange branches) or introgression (blue lines, blue dashed lines, and blue dotted lines) detected by QuIBL. Proportions 50 km; see Supplementary Data 117), while taxa that decreased towards the end of the LGP (e.g., S. humboldti, S. demersus, M. a. antipodes and likely M. a. richdalei) tend to be residential, and forage inshore; see Supplementary Data 1. Taxa that disperse farther may have overcome local impacts of global climate cooling during the LGP (e.g., changes in sea-ice extent, prey abundance and terrestrial glaciation, however see18) largely by relocating to lower latitudes (e.g.,14), whereas locally-restricted taxa may have been more prone to sudden population collapses.Penguins have the slowest evolutionary rates among birdsThe integrated evolutionary speed hypothesis (IESH) proposes that temperature, water availability, population size, and spatial heterogeneity influence evolutionary rate19. Life history traits also impact the evolutionary rate, but such relationships remain incompletely understood in birds20. Penguins are long-lived, large-bodied, and produce few offspring, thus providing an ideal case study in how life history may impact evolutionary rate. We tested the IESH using three proxies for evolutionary rate: substitution rate, P and K2P distances between lineages and their ancestors (Supplementary Fig. 12 and Supplementary Data 3). We found that penguins and their sister group (Procellariiformes) had the lowest evolutionary rates of the 17 avian orders sampled by21 (Fig. 3a, Supplementary Fig. 13, and Supplementary Data 3). Because other aquatic orders also show slow rates (e.g., the aquatic Anseriformes show a significantly slower rate than their terrestrial sister group Galliformes), we hypothesize that the rate in penguins represents the culmination of a gradual slowdown associated with increasingly aquatic ecology. Intriguingly, we detected a trend toward decreasing rate over the first ~10 Ma of crown penguin evolution, followed by a marked uptick ~2 Ma, which suggests the onset of glacial-interglacial cycles contributed to a recent increase in evolutionary rates in penguins (Fig. 3b).Fig. 3: Evolutionary rates in birds.a Evolutionary rate in avian orders based on a ~19 Mbp alignment of highly conserved genome regions. Sphenisciformes and Procellariiformes have the lowest evolutionary rate among modern bird orders (One-sided Wilcoxon Rank sum test, P values  0.1)). Numbers at the tips represent the sample size in each group. Numbers at nodes represent the divergence times (Ma) between each order and its sister taxon and red dots within the boxplots indicate average values. We did not attempt to estimate the evolutionary rates for orders containing less than three sampled species (gray font; Musophagiformes, Mesitornithiformes, and Struthioniformes). Boxplots show the median with hinges at the 25th and 75th percentile and whiskers extending 1.5 times the interquartile range. Some bird images were downloaded from phylopic.org and were licensed under the Creative Commons (CC0) 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. b Evolutionary rates inferred for extant penguin lineages at internal nodes from the maximum clade credibility tree, calculated using a 500 Mbp genome alignment. Gray shadows represent the 95% credible intervals. c–e Correlations between c, body mass and generation time (P value  More

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LED trapsWe used a commercially available portable light trap (Eco-chu trap, Konan Shisetsu Kanri, Okinawa, Japan) to modify the light source. A prototype trap equipped with 12 UV-LED bulbs was developed to catch the green chafer Anomala albopilosa (Hope)35, but it was not sufficiently attractive to stink bugs. Light sources with different numbers of LEDs, from 12 to 84, were used. Either or both bullet-type UV-LED bulbs (NS395L-ERLO; 395 nm, 20 mA, Nitride Semiconductors, Tokushima, Japan) and green LED bulbs (NEPG510S; 525 nm, 20 mA, Nichia, Tokushima, Japan) were used. LEDs were arranged vertically on a stainless-steel cylinder (4.8 cm in diameter, 20 cm in height). Light sources with 12 LEDs were arranged in six rows around the circumference. Each row was arranged as two LEDs at 7.8 cm intervals. Adjacent LEDs were arranged in a left-handed spiral (depression angle of 53°, at approximately 2.5 cm intervals). Light sources with 21 LEDs were arranged in eight rows around the circumference. Each row was arranged as two or three LEDs at 7.2 cm intervals. Adjacent LEDs were arranged in a left-handed spiral (depression angle of 63°, at approximately 2.0 cm intervals). Light sources with 42 LEDs were arranged in eight rows around the circumference. Each row was arranged as five or six LEDs at 3.6 cm intervals. Adjacent LEDs were arranged in a left-handed spiral (elevation angle 63°, at approximately 2.0 cm intervals). Light sources with 84 LEDs were arranged in eight rows around the circumference. Each row was arranged as 10 or 11 LEDs at 1.8 cm intervals. Adjacent LEDs were arranged in a left-handed spiral (elevation angle 63°, at approximately 2.0 cm interval). When both UV and green LEDs were used, both LEDs were arranged alternately in a row (Fig. 4). The cylinder with the LEDs was covered with a transparent acrylic cylinder (9.8 cm in diameter, 20 cm in height).Figure 4Photograph of combined UV and green LED trap used in the experiments.Full size imageThe light source was mounted on a funnel (31 cm in diameter, 24 cm in height), and the lower part of the light source was approximately 100 cm above the ground. A cylindrical chamber (23 cm in diameter, 20 cm in height) was placed under the funnel so that insects that were attracted to the light fell into the funnel and were trapped. The legs of the trap were anchored to the ground using steel stakes. A dimethyl-dichloro-vinyl-phosphate (DDVP) plate containing 10.7 g dichlorvos (Bapona, Earth Chemical, Tokyo, Japan) was placed inside the chamber to kill the insects. The lights were turned on at 18:00 and turned off at 6:00 the next day. The power for the lights was supplied by rechargeable car batteries (N-40B19R/SB; DC 12 V, 28 Ah, Panasonic, Osaka, Japan) or domestic electricity power supplies (AC100V).Emission spectra of combined UV and green lightThe spectral intensity of combined UV and green light was measured using a high-speed spectrometer (HSU-100S, Asahi Spectra, Tokyo, Japan) in a dark room. An attached sensor fiber was placed 50 cm in front of the light source. The measurement was performed five times, the light source was rotated for each measurement to minimize the angle effect, and the average was used as a representative value. The UV- and green-LED emission spectra showed single peaks at wavelengths of 400 and 526 nm, respectively (Fig. 5). Calculated light intensities of UV (350–450 nm) and green (451–600 nm) regions were 2.12 × 1017 and 2.03 × 1017 photons m−2 s−1, respectively; that is, the light intensities of UV- and green-LEDs were almost equal.Figure 5Emission spectra of light source with UV- and green-LEDs. The light source was composed of alternating 42 UV-LEDs and 42 green-LEDs. The intensity of light was measured using a high-speed spectrometer (HSU-100S). An attached sensor fiber was placed 50 cm in front of the light source.Full size imageField evaluation of attractiveness to light sourcesField experiments were conducted at three locations in Japan: Central Region Agricultural Research Center (CARC), Hokuriku Research Station (37° 07′ 00″ N, 138° 16′ 23″ E) in Niigata; Yamaguchi Prefectural Agriculture & Forestry General Technology Center (YPATC) (34° 09′ 37″ N, 131° 29′ 47″ E) in Yamaguchi; and Okinawa Prefectural Agricultural Research Center (OPARC) (26° 06′ 18″ N, 127° 40′ 53″ E) in Okinawa. The distribution of Nezara spp. varies among the regions in Japan. Only N. antennata is distributed in Niigata, and only N. viridula is distributed in Okinawa. Both N. antennata and N. viridula were found in Yamaguchi.Experiment 1: Attractiveness of UV light at different intensitiesField experiments to evaluate the attractiveness of UV light at different intensities were conducted from August 2 to 29, 2017, around a soybean field at the CARC in Niigata and from July 12 to September 9, 2019, in grassland at the OPARC in Okinawa. Light traps with different numbers of UV-LEDs (12, 21, 42, and 84) were used as light sources. Each of the four LED traps was spaced more than 30 m apart and placed randomly around the soybean field or grassland. Due to time constraints, the numbers of N. viridula and N. antennata captured in traps were counted every 3–4 days at Niigata (total eight replicates) and every 7 days in Okinawa (total eight replicates). The traps were randomly repositioned every week to minimize the effect of trap location. The raw capture data for each trap are listed in Supplementary Table S1.Experiment 2: Attractiveness of green light at different intensitiesField experiment to evaluate the attractiveness of green light at different intensities was conducted from July 5 to August 5, 2019, around a soybean field at the YPATC in Yamaguchi. Light traps with different numbers of green LEDs (12, 21, 42, and 84) were used as light sources. Light trap with 84 UV-LEDs was used as the positive control. Each of the five LED traps was spaced more than 30 m apart and placed randomly around the soybean field. The numbers of Nezara bugs captured in traps were counted every 3–4 days (total nine replicates). The traps were randomly repositioned every week. The raw capture data for each trap are listed in Supplementary Table S2.Experiment 3: Attractiveness of combined-UV and green lightField experiments to evaluate the attractiveness of combinations of UV- and green-LEDs were conducted from June 13 to September 4, 2017, in the grassland at the OPARC in Okinawa, and from July 15 to September 1, 2017, around a soybean field at the YPATC in Yamaguchi. Light traps with 84 UV-LEDs, 84 green-LEDs, and a combination of 42 UV-LEDs and 42 green-LEDs were used as light sources. Each of the three LED traps was spaced more than 30 m apart and placed randomly around the soybean field or grassland. Although insects other than Nezara bugs (mainly coleopteran species) were captured in the light traps, for soybean pests, the funnel-type light traps are intended for monitoring large coleopteran and heteropteran insects ( > 1 cm). Therefore, we targeted and counted insects that meet these conditions. Statistical analysis was performed on species with a total capture number of more than 20 individuals in the three traps. The species were as follows: in addition to Nezara bugs, heteropteran bugs, Piezodorus hybneri (Gmelin), Glaucias subpunctatus (Walker), Halyomorpha halys (Stål), and Plautia stali Scott, as well as coleopteran beetles, Anomala albopilosa (Hope), A. cuprea Hope, A. rufocuprea Motschulsky, and Holotrichia parallela Motschulsky. The insects captured in traps were counted for each species every 7 days at Okinawa (total 12 replicates) and every 3–4 days at Yamaguchi (total 14 replicates). The traps were randomly repositioned every week. The raw capture data for each trap are listed in Supplementary Table S3.Data analysisIn Experiment 1, the effect of UV light intensities for trap catches were analyzed using a nonparametric one-tailed Shirley–Williams test under an assumption that higher light intensity attracts larger amounts of insects. In Experiment 2, the effect of green light intensities for trap catches were analyzed using the Shirley–Williams test. Subsequently, the attractiveness of each green light was compared to that of UV light using Wilcoxon matched pairs signed-rank test. In Experiment 3, the effect of light sources for trap catches was analyzed using the Friedman test, followed by the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. Statistical analyses were performed using R version 4.2.0 (R Core Team, 2022). More