Ecology

Sherr, E. B. & Sherr, B. F. Role of microbes in pelagic food webs: A revised concept. Limnol. Oceanogr. 33, 1225–1227 (1988).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Weisse, T. Pelagic microbes—Protozoa and the microbial food web. In The Lakes Handbook, Vol. 1—Limnology and Limnetic Ecology (eds O’Sullivan, P. & Reynolds, C. S.) 417–460 (Blackwell Science Ltd, 2004).
Google Scholar 
Foissner, W. Protist diversity: Estimates of the near-imponderable. Protist 150, 363–368 (1999).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Sommer, U. & Sommer, F. Cladocerans versus copepods: The cause of contrasting top–down controls on freshwater and marine phytoplankton. Oecologia 147, 183–194 (2006).ADS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Wiackowski, K., Brett, M. T. & Goldman, C. R. Differential effects of zooplankton species on ciliate community structure. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39, 486–492 (1994).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Armengol, L., Calbet, A., Franchy, G., Rodríguez-Santos, A. & Hernández-León, S. Planktonic food web structure and trophic transfer efficiency along a productivity gradient in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean. Sci. Rep. 9, 2044. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-38507-9 (2019).ADS 
CAS 
Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Carrick, H. J., Fahnenstiel, G. L., Stoermer, E. F. & Wetzel, R. G. The importance of zooplankton-protozoan trophic couplings in Lake Michigan. Limnol. Oceanogr. 36, 1335–1345. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1991.36.7.1335 (1991).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Jack, J. D. & Gilbert, J. J. Effects of metazoan predators on ciliates in freshwater plankton communities. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 44, 194–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1997.tb05699.x (1997).Article 

Google Scholar 
Sanders, R. W. & Wickham, S. A. Planktonic protozoa and metazoa: Predation, food quality and population control. Mar. Microb. Food Webs 7, 197–223 (1993).
Google Scholar 
Kiørboe, T. How zooplankton feed: Mechanisms, traits and trade-offs. Biol. Rev. 86, 311–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00148.x (2011).Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Gliwicz, Z. M. Zooplankton. The Lakes Handbook: Limnology and Limnetic Ecology Vol. 1 (eds P. O’Sullivan & C. S. Reynolds) 461–516 (Blackwell Science Ltd, 2004).Wickham, S. A. The direct and indirect impact of Daphnia and cyclops on a freshwater microbial food web. J. Plankton Res. 20, 739–755 (1998).Article 

Google Scholar 
Gilbert, J. J. Suppression of rotifer populations by Daphnia: A review of the evidence, the mechanisms, and the effects on zooplankton community structure. Limnol. Oceanogr. 33, 1286–1303 (1988).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Lampert, W. & Muck, P. Multiple aspects of food limitation in zooplankton communities: The Daphnia-Eudiaptomus example. Ergebnisse der Limnologie/Adv. Limnol. 21, 311–322 (1985).
Google Scholar 
Kiørboe, T. What makes pelagic copepods so successful?. J. Plankton Res. 33, 677–685. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbq159 (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Paffenhöfer, G.-A. Heterotrophic protozoa and small metazoa: Feeding rates and prey-consumer interactions. J. Plankton Res. 20, 121–133 (1998).Article 

Google Scholar 
Forró, L., Korovchinsky, N. M., Kotov, A. A. & Petrusek, A. Global diversity of cladocerans (Cladocera; Crustacea) in freshwater. In Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment 177–184 (Springer, 2007).Jack, J. D. & Gilbert, J. J. Susceptibilities of different-sized ciliates to direct suppression by small and large cladocerans. Freshw. Biol. 29, 19–29 (1993).Article 

Google Scholar 
Jürgens, K. Impact of Daphnia on planktonic microbial food webs—A review. Mar. Microb. Food Webs 8, 295–324 (1994).
Google Scholar 
Calbet, A. & Saiz, E. The ciliate-copepod link in marine ecosystems. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 38, 157–167. https://doi.org/10.3354/ame038157 (2005).Article 

Google Scholar 
Saiz, E. & Calbet, A. Scaling of feeding in marine calanoid copepods. Limnol. Oceanogr. 52, 668–675 (2007).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Steinberg, D. K. & Landry, M. R. Zooplankton and the ocean carbon cycle. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci. 9, 413–444 (2017).PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Pierce, R. W. & Turner, J. T. Ecology of planktonic ciliates in marine food webs. Rev. Aquat. Sci. 6, 139–181 (1992).
Google Scholar 
Oghenekaro, E. U. & Chigbu, P. Population dynamics and life history of marine cladocera in the maryland coastal bays, USA. J. Coast. Res. 35, 1225–1236 (2019).Article 

Google Scholar 
Pestorić, B., Lučić, D & Joksimović, D. Cladocerans spatial and temporal distribution in the coastal south Adriatic waters (Montenegro). Stud. Mar. 25, 101–120 (2011).Adrian, R. & Schneider-Olt, B. Top-down effects of crustacean zooplankton on pelagic microorganisms in a mesotrophic lake. J. Plankton Res. 21, 2175–2190. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/21.11.2175 (1999).Article 

Google Scholar 
Burns, C. W. & Schallenberg, M. Relative impacts of copepods, cladocerans and nutrients on the microbial food web of a mesotrophic lake. J. Plankton Res. 18, 683–714. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/18.5.683 (1996).Article 

Google Scholar 
Field, C. B., Behrenfeld, M. J., Randerson, J. T. & Falkowski, P. Primary production of the biosphere: Integrating terrestrial and oceanic components. Science 281, 237–240 (1998).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Lewis, W. M. Jr. Global primary production of lakes: 19th Baldi Memorial Lecture. Inland Waters 1, 1–28 (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Moore, C. et al. Processes and patterns of oceanic nutrient limitation. Nat. Geosci. 6, 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1765 (2013).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Gilbert, J. J. Jumping behavior in the oligotrich ciliates Strobilidium velox and Halteria grandinella and its significance as a defense against rotifers. Microb. Ecol. 27, 189–200 (1994).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Weisse, T. & Sonntag, B. Ciliates in planktonic food webs: communication and adaptive response. In Biocommunication of Ciliates (eds Witzany, G. & Nowacki, M.) 351–372 (Springer International Publishing, 2016).
Google Scholar 
Burns, C. W. & Gilbert, J. J. Predation on ciliates by freshwater calanoid copepods: Rates of predation and relative vulnerabilities of prey. Freshw. Biol. 30, 377–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2427.1993.tb00822.x (1993).Article 

Google Scholar 
Lampert, W. & Sommer, U. Limnoecolgy 2nd edn. (Oxford University Press, 2007).
Google Scholar 
Almeda, R., Someren Gréve, H. & Kiørboe, T. Prey perception mechanism determines maximum clearance rates of planktonic copepods. Limnol. Oceanogr. 63, 2695–2707. https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.10969 (2018).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Holling, C. S. The components of predation as revealed by a study of small-mammal predation of the European pine sawfly. Can. Entomol. 91, 293–320 (1959).Article 

Google Scholar 
Fenchel, T. Ecology of protozoa. The Biology of Free-living Phagotrophic Protists (Science Tech./Springer, 1987).
Google Scholar 
Weisse, T. et al. Functional ecology of aquatic phagotrophic protists—Concepts, limitations, and perspectives. Eur. J. Protistol. 55, 50–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejop.2016.03.003 (2016).Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Wickham, S. A. Cyclops predation on ciliates: Species-specific differences and functional responses. J. Plankton Res. 17, 1633–1646 (1995).Article 

Google Scholar 
Coats, D. W. & Bachvaroff, T. R. Parasites of tintinnids. In The Biology and Ecology of Tintinnid Ciliates: Models for Marine Plankton (eds Dolan, R. et al.) 145–170 (Wiley, 2012).Chapter 

Google Scholar 
Guillou, L. et al. Widespread occurrence and genetic diversity of marine parasitoids belonging to Syndiniales (Alveolata). Environ. Microbiol. 10, 3349–3365. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01731.x (2008).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Brun, P. G., Payne, M. R. & Kiørboe, T. A trait database for marine copepods. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 9, 99–113. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-9-99-2017 (2017).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Armengol, L., Franchy, G., Ojeda, A., Santana-del Pino, Á. & Hernández-León, S. Effects of copepods on natural microplankton communities: Do they exert top-down control?. Mar. Biol. 164, 136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-017-3165-2 (2017).Article 

Google Scholar 
Moriarty, R. & O’Brien, T. Distribution of mesozooplankton biomass in the global ocean. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 5, 45–55 (2013).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Landry, M. R., Al-Mutairi, H., Selph, K. E., Christensen, S. & Nunnery, S. Seasonal patterns of mesozooplankton abundance and biomass at Station ALOHA. Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 48, 2037–2061 (2001).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Turner, J. T. The importance of small planktonic copepods and their roles in pelagic marine food webs. Zool. Stud. 43, 255–266 (2004).
Google Scholar 
Heneghan, R. F. et al. A functional size-spectrum model of the global marine ecosystem that resolves zooplankton composition. Ecol. Model. 435, 109265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2020.109265 (2020).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Wang, Q. et al. Predicting temperature impacts on aquatic productivity: Questioning the metabolic theory of ecology’s “canonical” activation energies. Limnol. Oceanogr. 64, 1172–1185. https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.11105 (2019).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Montagnes, D. J. Ecophysiology and behavior of tintinnids. In The Biology and Ecology of Tintinnid Ciliates: Models for Marine Plankton (eds Dolan, R. et al.) 85–121 (Wiley, 2012).Chapter 

Google Scholar 
McManus, G. B. & Santoferrara, L. F. Tintinnids in microzooplankton communities. In The Biology and Ecology of Tintinnid Ciliates: Models for Marine Plankton (eds Dolan, R. et al.) 198–213 (Wiley, 2012).Chapter 

Google Scholar 
Fileman, E., Petropavlovsky, A. & Harris, R. Grazing by the copepods Calanus helgolandicus and Acartia clausi on the protozooplankton community at station L4 in the Western English Channel. J. Plankton Res. 32, 709–724. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbp142 (2010).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Zeldis, J. R. & Décima, M. Mesozooplankton connect the microbial food web to higher trophic levels and vertical export in the New Zealand Subtropical Convergence Zone. Deep Sea Res. Part I Oceanogr. Res. Pap. 155, 103146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2019.103146 (2020).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Stoecker, D. K. Predators of tintinnids. In The Biology and Ecology of Tintinnid Ciliates: Models for Marine Plankton (eds Dolan, J. R. et al.) 122–144 (Wiley, 2012).Chapter 

Google Scholar 
Levinsen, H. & Nielsen, T. G. The trophic role of marine pelagic ciliates and heterotrophic dinoflagellates in arctic and temperate coastal ecosystems: A cross-latitude comparison. Limnol. Oceanogr. 47, 427–439. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2002.47.2.0427 (2002).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Gallienne, C. & Robins, D. Is Oithona the most important copepod in the world’s oceans?. J. Plankton Res. 23, 1421–1432. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/23.12.1421 (2001).Article 

Google Scholar 
Stoecker, D. K. & Egloff, D. A. Predation by Acartia tonsa Dana on planktonic ciliates and rotifers. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 110, 53–68 (1987).Article 

Google Scholar 
Stoecker, D. & Pierson, J. Predation on protozoa: Its importance to zooplankton revisited. J. Plankton Res. 41, 367–373. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbz027 (2019).Article 

Google Scholar 
Diehl, S. & Feissel, M. Intraguild prey suffer from enrichment of their resources: A microcosm experiment with ciliates. Ecology 82, 2977–2983 (2001).Article 

Google Scholar 
Broglio, E., Saiz, E., Calbet, A., Trepat, I. & Alcaraz, M. Trophic impact and prey selection by crustacean zooplankton on the microbial communities of an oligotrophic coastal area (NW Mediterranean Sea). Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 35, 65–78 (2004).Article 

Google Scholar 
Sommer, U. et al. Beyond the Plankton Ecology Group (PEG) Model: Mechanisms driving plankton succession. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 43, 429–448. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110411-160251 (2012).Article 

Google Scholar 
IGKB. Jahresbericht der Internationalen Gewässerschutzkommission für den Bodensee: Limnologischer Zustand des Bodensees Nr. 43 (2018–2019), 128 https://www.igkb.org/oeffentlichkeitsarbeit/limnologischer-zustand-des-sees-gruene-berichte/. (2020).Wetzel, R. G. Limnology—Lake and River Ecosystems 3rd edn. (Academic Press, 2001).
Google Scholar 
Kumar, R. Effects of Mesocyclops thermocyclopoides (Copepoda: Cyclopoida) predation on the population growth patterns of different prey species. J. Freshw. Ecol. 18, 383–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/02705060.2003.9663974 (2003).Article 

Google Scholar 
Porter, K. G., Pace, M. L. & Battey, F. J. Ciliate protozoans as links in freshwater planktonic food chains. Nature 277, 563–565 (1979).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Landry, M. & Fagerness, V. Behavioral and morphological influences on predatory interactions among marine copepods. Bull. Mar. Sci. 43, 509–529 (1988).
Google Scholar 
Krainer, K.-H. & Müller, H. Morphology, infraciliature and ecology of a nerw planktonic ciliate, Histiobalantium bodamicum n. sp. (Scuticociliatida: Histiobalantiidae). Eur. J. Protistol. 31, 389–395 (1995).Article 

Google Scholar 
Lu, X., Gao, Y. & Weisse, T. Functional ecology of two contrasting freshwater ciliated protists in relation to temperature. J. Eukaryot. Microb. 68, e12823. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeu.12823 (2021).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Menden-Deuer, S. & Lessard, E. J. Carbon to volume relationships for dinoflagellates, diatoms, and other protist plankton. Limnol. Oceanogr. 45, 569–579. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2000.45.3.0569 (2000).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Bergkemper, V. & Weisse, T. Phytoplankton response to the summer heat wave 2015—A case study from Lake Mondsee, Austria. Inland Waters 7, 88–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/20442041.2017.1294352 (2017).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Crosbie, N. D., Teubner, K. & Weisse, T. Flow-cytometric mapping provides novel insights into the seasonal and vertical distributions of freshwater autotrophic picoplankton. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 33, 53–66. https://doi.org/10.3354/ame033053 (2003).Article 

Google Scholar 
Dokulil, M. T. & Teubner, K. Deep living Planktothrix rubescens modulated by environmental constraints and climate forcing. Hydrobiologia 698, 29–46 (2012).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Weisse, T., Lukić, D. & Lu, X. Container volume may affect growth rates of ciliates and clearance rates of their microcrustacean predators in microcosm experiments. J. Plankton Res. 43, 288–299. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbab017 (2021).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Bergkemper, V. & Weisse, T. Do current European lake monitoring programmes reliably estimate phytoplankton community changes? Hydrobiologia 824, 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-017-3426-6 (2018).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Rosen, R. A. Length-dry weight relationships of some freshwater zooplanktona. J. Freshw. Ecol. 1, 225–229 (1981).Article 

Google Scholar 
Frost, B. W. Effects of size and concentration of food particles on the feeding behavior of the marine planktonic copepod Calanus pacificus. Limnol. Oceanogr. 17, 805–815 (1972).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
RStudio Team. RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R.RStudio, http://www.rstudio.com/ (PBC, 2021).Burnham, K. P. & Anderson, D. R. Multimodel inference: Understanding AIC and BIC in model selection. Sociol. Methods Res. 33, 261–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124104268644 (2004).MathSciNet 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Hansen, P. J., Bjørnsen, P. K. & Hansen, B. W. Zooplankton grazing and growth: Scaling within the 2–2,000-μm body size range. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42, 687–704. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1997.42.4.0687 (1997).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar  More

Breed, M. F. et al. The potential of genomics for restoring ecosystems and biodiversity. Nat. Rev. Genet. 20, 615–628 (2019).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Carpenter, S. R., Stanley, E. H. & Vander Zanden, M. J. State of the world’s freshwater ecosystems: Physical, chemical, and biological changes. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 36, 75–99 (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Geist, J. Integrative freshwater ecology and biodiversity conservation. Ecol. Indic. 11, 1507–1516 (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Jeppesen, E., Søndergaard, M., Meerhoff, M., Lauridsen, T. L. & Jensen, J. P. Shallow lake restoration by nutrient loading reduction–some recent findings and challenges ahead. Hydrobiologia 584, 239–252 (2007).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Søndergaard, M. & Jeppesen, E. Anthropogenic impacts on lake and stream ecosystems, and approaches to restoration. J. Appl. Ecol. 44, 1089–1094 (2007).Article 

Google Scholar 
Marburg, A. E., Turner, M. G. & Kratz, T. K. Natural and anthropogenic variation in coarse wood among and within lakes. J. Ecol. 94, 558–568 (2006).Article 

Google Scholar 
Schindler, D. W. Recent advances in the understanding and management of eutrophication. Limnol. Oceanogr. 51, 356–363 (2006).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Lau, S. S. S. & Lane, S. N. Continuity and change in environmental systems: The case of shallow lake ecosystems. Prog. Phys. Geogr. Earth Environ. 25, 178–202 (2001).Article 

Google Scholar 
Brinkhurst, R. O. Distribution and abundance of Tubificid (Oligochaeta) species in Toronto harbour, Lake Ontario. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27, 1961–1969 (1970).Article 

Google Scholar 
Wood, L. W. & Chua, K. E. Glucose flux at the sediment-water interface of Toronto Harbour, Lake Ontario, with reference to pollution stress. Can. J. Microbiol. 19, 413–420 (1973).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Nriagu, J. O., Wong, H. K. T. & Snodgrass, W. J. Historical records of metal pollution in sediments of Toronto and Hamilton harbours. J. Gt. Lakes Res. 9(3), 365–373 (1983).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Toronto & Region Remedial Action Plan. Metro Toronto and Region Remedial Action Plan (1989).Dahmer, S. C., Matos, L. & Morley, A. Restoring Toronto’s waters: Progress toward delisting the Toronto and Region area of concern. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag. 21, 229–233 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Munawar, M., Norwood, W., McCarthy, L. & Mayfield, C. In situ bioassessment of dredging and disposal activities in a contaminated ecosystem: Toronto Harbour. Hydrobiologia https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1896-2_62 (1989).Article 

Google Scholar 
Dahmer, S. C., Matos, L. & Jarvie, S. Assessment of the degradation of aesthetics beneficial use impairment in the Toronto and region area of concern. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag. 21, 276–284 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Metro Toronto and Region Remedial Action Plan. Within Reach: 2015 Toronto an Region Remedial Action Plan Progress Report (2016).Burniston, D. & Waltho, J. Report on Sediment Quality in the Toronto Inner Harbour 2007 (2011).Elbrecht, V., Vamos, E. E., Meissner, K., Aroviita, J. & Leese, F. Assessing strengths and weaknesses of DNA metabarcoding-based macroinvertebrate identification for routine stream monitoring. Methods Ecol. Evol. 8, 1265–1275 (2017).Article 

Google Scholar 
Emilson, C. E. et al. DNA metabarcoding and morphological macroinvertebrate metrics reveal the same changes in boreal watersheds across an environmental gradient. Sci. Rep. 7, 12777 (2017).ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Aylagas, E., Borja, Á., Muxika, I. & Rodríguez-Ezpeleta, N. Adapting metabarcoding-based benthic biomonitoring into routine marine ecological status assessment networks. Ecol. Indic. 95, 194–202 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Bush, A. et al. Studying ecosystems with DNA metabarcoding: Lessons from biomonitoring of aquatic macroinvertebrates. Front. Ecol. Evol. 7, 434 (2019).Article 

Google Scholar 
Serrana, J. M., Miyake, Y., Gamboa, M. & Watanabe, K. Comparison of DNA metabarcoding and morphological identification for stream macroinvertebrate biodiversity assessment and monitoring. Ecol. Indic. 101, 963–972 (2019).Article 

Google Scholar 
Fernández, S., Rodríguez-Martínez, S., Martínez, J. L., Garcia-Vazquez, E. & Ardura, A. How can eDNA contribute in riverine macroinvertebrate assessment? A metabarcoding approach in the Nalón River (Asturias, Northern Spain). Environ. DNA 1, 385–401 (2019).Article 

Google Scholar 
Hajibabaei, M. et al. Watered-down biodiversity? A comparison of metabarcoding results from DNA extracted from matched water and bulk tissue biomonitoring samples. PLoS ONE 14, e0225409 (2019).CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Baird, D. J. & Hajibabaei, M. Biomonitoring 2.0: A new paradigm in ecosystem assessment made possible by next-generation DNA sequencing. Mol. Ecol. 21, 2039–2044 (2012).PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Hajibabaei, M., Baird, D. J., Fahner, N. A., Beiko, R. & Golding, G. B. A new way to contemplate Darwin’s tangled bank: How DNA barcodes are reconnecting biodiversity science and biomonitoring. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B. Biol. Sci. 371, 20150330 (2016).Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Beermann, A. J., Zizka, V. M. A., Elbrecht, V., Baranov, V. & Leese, F. DNA metabarcoding reveals the complex and hidden responses of chironomids to multiple stressors. Environ. Sci. Eur. 30, 26 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Bush, A. et al. DNA metabarcoding reveals metacommunity dynamics in a threatened boreal wetland wilderness. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 117, 8539–8545 (2020).CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Compson, Z. G. et al. Chapter Two—Linking DNA Metabarcoding and Text Mining to Create Network-Based Biomonitoring Tools: A Case Study on Boreal Wetland Macroinvertebrate Communities. In Advances in Ecological Research Vol. 59 (eds Bohan, D. A. et al.) 33–74 (Academic Press, 2018).
Google Scholar 
Fernandes, K. et al. DNA metabarcoding—A new approach to fauna monitoring in mine site restoration. Restor. Ecol. 26, 1098–1107 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Fernandes, K. et al. Invertebrate DNA metabarcoding reveals changes in communities across mine site restoration chronosequences. Restor. Ecol. 27, 1177–1186 (2019).Article 

Google Scholar 
Poikane, S. et al. Benthic macroinvertebrates in lake ecological assessment: A review of methods, intercalibration and practical recommendations. Sci. Total Environ. 543, 123–134 (2016).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Macher, J.-N. et al. Comparison of environmental DNA and bulk-sample metabarcoding using highly degenerate cytochrome c oxidase I primers. Mol. Ecol. Resour. 18, 1456–1468 (2018).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Marshall, N. T. & Stepien, C. A. Macroinvertebrate community diversity and habitat quality relationships along a large river from targeted eDNA metabarcode assays. Environ. DNA 2, 572–586 (2020).Article 

Google Scholar 
Metro Toronto and Region Remedial Action Plan. Updates on Actions 2013–2014. (2013).López-López, E. & Sedeño-Díaz, J. E. Biological indicators of water quality: The role of fish and macroinvertebrates as indicators of water quality. In Environmental Indicators (eds Armon, R. H. & Hänninen, O.) 643–661 (Springer Netherlands, 2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9499-2_37.Chapter 

Google Scholar 
Berry, O. et al. A Comparison of Morphological and DNA Metabarcoding Analysis of Diets in Exploited Marine Fishes (2015).Sweeney, B. W., Battle, J. M., Jackson, J. K. & Dapkey, T. Can DNA barcodes of stream macroinvertebrates improve descriptions of community structure and water quality?. J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 30, 195–216 (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Banerji, A. et al. Spatial and temporal dynamics of a freshwater eukaryotic plankton community revealed via 18S rRNA gene metabarcoding. Hydrobiologia 818, 71–86 (2018).CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Porter, T. M. et al. Widespread occurrence and phylogenetic placement of a soil clone group adds a prominent new branch to the fungal tree of life. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 46, 635–644 (2008).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Rosling, A. et al. Archaeorhizomycetes: Unearthing an ancient class of ubiquitous soil fungi. Science 333, 876–879 (2011).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Mandaville, S. M. Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Freshwaters—Taxa Tolerance Values, Metrics, and Protocols, vol. 128. http://lakes.chebucto.org/H-1/tolerance.pdf (2002).Trzcinski, M. K. et al. The effects of food web structure on ecosystem function exceeds those of precipitation. J. Anim. Ecol. 85, 1147–1160 (2016).PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Liu, X. & Wang, H. Contrasting patterns and drivers in taxonomic versus functional diversity, and community assembly of aquatic plants in subtropical lakes. Biodivers. Conserv. 27(12), 3103–3118 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Kovalenko, K. E., Brady, V. J., Ciborowski, J. J. H., Ilyushkin, S. & Johnson, L. B. Functional changes in littoral macroinvertebrate communities in response to watershed-level anthropogenic stress. PLoS ONE 9, e101499 (2014).ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Luiza-Andrade, A., Montag, L. F. A. & Juen, L. Functional diversity in studies of aquatic macroinvertebrates community. Scientometrics 111, 1643–1656 (2017).Article 

Google Scholar 
MacMillan, G. A., Chételat, J., Heath, J. P., Mickpegak, R. & Amyot, M. Rare earth elements in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems in the eastern Canadian Arctic. Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts 19, 1336–1345 (2017).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Pastorino, P. et al. Macrobenthic invertebrates as tracers of rare earth elements in freshwater watercourses. Sci. Total Environ. 698, 134282 (2020).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Kulaš, A. et al. Ciliates (Alveolata, Ciliophora) as bioindicators of environmental pressure: A karstic river case. Ecol. Indic. 124, 107430 (2021).Article 

Google Scholar 
Persaud, D., Lomas, T., Boyd, D. & Mathai, S. Historical Development and Quality of the Toronto Waterfront Sediments (1985).Milani, D. & Grapentine, L. Assessment of Sediment Quality in the Bay of Quinte Area Of Concern (2000).Reynoldson, T. B., Bailey, R. C., Day, K. E. & Norris, R. H. Biological guidelines for freshwater sediment based on BEnthic Assessment of SedimenT (the BEAST) using a multivariate approach for predicting biological state. Aust. J. Ecol. 20(1), 198–219 (1995).Article 

Google Scholar 
Geller, J., Meyer, C., Parker, M. & Hawk, H. Redesign of PCR primers for mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I for marine invertebrates and application in all-taxa biotic surveys. Mol. Ecol. Resour. 13, 851–861 (2013).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Leray, M. et al. A new versatile primer set targeting a short fragment of the mitochondrial COI region for metabarcoding metazoan diversity: Application for characterizing coral reef fish gut contents. Front. Zool. 10, 34 (2013).PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Zhan, A. et al. High sensitivity of 454 pyrosequencing for detection of rare species in aquatic communities. Methods Ecol. Evol. 4, 558–565 (2013).Article 

Google Scholar 
Gibson, J. et al. Simultaneous assessment of the macrobiome and microbiome in a bulk sample of tropical arthropods through DNA metasystematics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 111, 8007–8012 (2014).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Gibson, J. F. et al. Large-scale biomonitoring of remote and threatened ecosystems via high-throughput sequencing. PLoS ONE 10, e0138432 (2015).PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Porter, T. M. & Hajibabaei, M. METAWORKS: A flexible, scalable bioinformatic pipeline for multi-marker biodiversity assessments. bioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.07.14.202960 (2020).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Köster, J. & Rahmann, S. Snakemake—a scalable bioinformatics workflow engine. Bioinformatics 28, 2520–2522 (2012).PubMed 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Anon. Conda. (2016).Porter, T. M. & Hajibabaei, M. Automated high throughput animal CO1 metabarcode classification. Sci. Rep. 8, 4226 (2018).ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Porter, T. M. Eukaryote CO1 Reference set for the RDP Classifier (Zenodo, 2017) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4741447.Book 

Google Scholar 
Porter, T. M. SILVA 18S Reference Set for the RDP Classifier(Zenodo, 2018) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4741433.Book 

Google Scholar 
R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Core Team, 2020).
Google Scholar 
Wickham, H. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis (Springer-Verlag, 2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-98141-3.Book 
MATH 

Google Scholar 
Oksanen, J. et al. vegan: Community Ecology Package (2020).Komsta, L. & Novomestky, F. moments: Moments, cumulants, skewness, kurtosis and related tests (2015).U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Freshwater Biological Traits Database (Final Report) EPA/600/R-11/038F. (2012)U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Freshwater Biological Traits Database (2012).Schmidt-Kloiber, A. & Hering, D. An online tool that unifies, standardises and codifies more than 20,000 European freshwater organisms and their ecological preferences. Ecol. Indic. 53, 271–282 (2015).Article 

Google Scholar 
Moog, O. Fauna Aquatica Austriaca – Catalogue for autecological Classification of Austrian Aquatic Organisms (1995).Tachet, H., Bournaud, M., Richoux, P., Usseglio-Polatera, P. Invertébrés d’eau douce – systématique, biologie, écologie (2010).Nally, R. M. & Walsh, C. J. Hierarchical partitioning public-domain software. Biodivers. Conserv. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000009515.11717.0b (2004).Article 

Google Scholar  More

Parra-Lopez, C., Groot, J. C. J., Carmona-Torres, C. & Rossing, W. A. H. Integrating public demands into model-based design for multifunctional agriculture: an application to intensive Dutch dairy landscapes. Ecol. Econ. 67(4), 538–551 (2008).Article 

Google Scholar 
Pinto-Correia, T., Guiomar, N., Guerra, C.A. et al. Assessing the ability of rural (2016)UPA. Desarrollo rural. Oportunidades Desaprovechadas La Tierra 254, 31–33 (2016).
Google Scholar 
Abreu, I., Nunes, J. M. & Mesias, F. J. Can rural development Be measured? Design and application of a synthetic index to Portuguese municipalities. Soc. Indic. Res. 145, 1107–1123 (2019).Article 

Google Scholar 
Doxiadis, C. A. Ekistics: an introduction to the science of human settlements (Oxford University Press, 1968).
Google Scholar 
Algeciras, J. A. R., Coch, H. & Perez, G. D. L. P. Human thermal comfort conditions and urban planning in hot-humid climates-The case of Cuba. Int. J. Biometeorol. 60, 1151–1164 (2016).Article 

Google Scholar 
Zhang, H., Zhang, S. & Liu, Z. Evolution and influencing factors of China’s rural population distribution patterns since 1990. PLoS ONE 15, e0233637 (2020).CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Eurostat. Eurostat Regional Yearbook. 2019 Edition. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2019)Overview of CAP Reform 2014–2020. Agricultural Policy Perspectives. Brief, no. 5, December 2013. European Commission.Marsden, T. & Sonnino, R. Rural development and the regional state: denying multifunctional agriculture in the UK. J. Rural Stud. 24(4), 422–431 (2008).Article 

Google Scholar 
Adamowicz, M. Normative Aspects of Rural Development Strategy and Policy in The European Union Normative Aspects of Rural Development Strategy and Policy in The European Union, (2018)Léon, Y. Rural development in Europe: a research frontier for agricultural economists. Eur. Rev. Agric. Econ. 32, 301–317 (2005).Article 

Google Scholar 
Biegańska, J., Środa-Murawska, S., Kruzmetra, Z. & Swiaczny, F. Peri-Urban development as a significant rural development trend. Quaest. Geogr. 37, 125–140 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Lee I.-H. Change of rural development policy in South Korea After Korean War. J. Reg City Plan, 2021.Oh, Y.-Y. et al. The selection of proper resource and change of salinity in Helianthus tuberosus L. cultivated in Saemangeum reclaimed tidal land. Korean J. Environ. Agric. 37, 73–78 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Yoon, J.-Y., Jeong, J.-H. & Choi, S.-K. Validation of reference genes for quantifying changes in physiological gene expression in apple tree under cold stress and virus infection. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 26, 144–158 (2020).
Google Scholar 
Faradiba, F. & Zet, L. The impact of climate factors, disaster, and social community in rural development. J. Asian Finance Econ. Bus. 7, 707–717 (2020).Article 

Google Scholar 
Kaneko, M., Ohta, R., Vingilis, E. & Mathews, M. Thomas Robert freeman; systematic scoping review of factors and measures of rurality: toward the development of a rurality index for health care research in Japan. BMC Health Services Res. 21, 1–11 (2021).Article 

Google Scholar 
Yokoyama, S. Sustainable activities for rural development, New Frontiers in Regional Science: Asian Perspectives, (2019).Georgios, C., & Barraí, H. Social innovation in rural governance: a comparative case study across the marginalised rural EU. J. Rural Stud. (2021)Michalek, J. & Zarnekow, N. Application of the rural development index to analysis of rural regions in Poland and Slovakia. Soc. Indic. Res. 105, 1–37 (2012).Article 

Google Scholar 
Liu, Y., Wang, G. & Zhang, F. Spatio-temporal dynamic patterns of rural area development in eastern coastal China. Chin. Geogr. Sci. 23, 173–181 (2013).Article 

Google Scholar 
Kim, T.-H. & Yang, S.-R. Construction of the rural development index: the case of Vietnam. J. Rural Dev. 39, 113–142 (2016).
Google Scholar 
Houkai, W. Current top ten frontier issues [J]in the study of agriculture. Rural Areas Rural Econ. China 4, 2–6 (2019).
Google Scholar 
Hu, Y., Fu, R. & Jin, S. Ecological environment concern in the organic link between poverty alleviation and rural revitalization. Reform 10, 141–148 (2019).
Google Scholar 
Zhang H., Gao L., & Yan K. On the theoretical origin, main innovation and realization path of rural revitalization thought rural economy in China, (11), 2–16 (2018).Feiwei, S. & Zegan, X. Construction and empirical analysis of the index system of beautiful villages in Zhejiang Province. J. Huazhong Agric. Univ. (Social Sciences Edition) 02, 45-51+132 (2017).
Google Scholar 
Research Group of Shanghai Rural Revitalization Index. Construction and evaluation of the index system of rural revitalization in Shanghai. Sci. Dev. 9, 56–63 (2020).World Bank, Expanding the Measure of Wealth. Indicators of Environmentally Sustainable Development. World Bank, Washington, D.C. (1997)Hicks, D. A. The inequality-adjusted human development index: a constructive proposal. World Dev. 25, 1283–1298 (1997).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Zhao, R., Shao, C. & He, R. Spatiotemporal evolution of ecosystem health of China’s Provinces based on SDGs. Int. J Environ. Res. Public Health 18, 10569 (2021).PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Kageyama, A., Desenvolvimento rural : conceitos e aplicaçao ao caso brasileiro. UFRGS Editora, Porto Alegre (Brasil) (2008).Abreu, I. Construçao de um índice de desenvolvimento rural e sua aplicaçao ao Alto Alentejo. Instituto Polit´ecnico de Portalegre (2014)Castellani, V. & Sala, S. Sustainable performance index for tourism policy development. Tour. Manag. 31, 871–880 (2009).Article 

Google Scholar 
Hashemi, N. The role of ecotourism in sustainable rural development. J. Rural Dev. Stud. 13(3), 173–188 (2010).
Google Scholar 
Alkire, S., Conconi, A., & Seth, S. Multidimensional Poverty Index 2013: Brief methodological note and results. Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) (2014b)Alkire, S., Foster, J. & Santos, M. E. Where did identification go?. J. Econ. Inequal. 9, 501–505 (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Alkire, S. et al. Multidimensional poverty measurement and analysis (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2015).MATH 
Book 

Google Scholar 
Alkire, S., & Seth, S. Identifying destitution through linked subsetsof multidimensionally poor: an ordinal approach, OPHI Working Paper 99. University of Oxford (2016)Li, X., Yang, H., Jia, J., Shen, Y. & Liu, J. Index system of sustainable rural development based on the concept of ecological livability. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 86, 1–12 (2021).
Google Scholar 
Guo, X. & Hu, Y. Construction of evaluation index system of rural revitalization level. Agric. Econ. Manag. 05, 5–15 (2020).
Google Scholar 
Kong, X. & Xia, J. The value logic relation and synergy path choice between rural revitalization strategy and rural integration development. J. Northwest Univ. (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition) 49(02), 10–18 (2019).
Google Scholar 
Wen, T. Three hundred years: the context and development of Chinese rural construction. Open Age. (04) (2016)Ren, C. A Study on the basis, constraints and institutional supply of industrial prosperity. Acad. Acad. 07, 15–27 (2018).
Google Scholar 
Ye, X., Cheng, Y., Zhao, J. & Ning, X. Rural revitalization during the 14th Five-year plan: trend judgment, general thinking and safeguard mechanism. Rural Econ. 09, 1–9 (2020).
Google Scholar 
Zhu, Q. The sociological explanation of the prosperity of rural industry-industry in the context of rural revitalization. J. China Agric. Univ. (Social Sciences Edition) 35(03), 89–95 (2018).
Google Scholar 
Bithas, K. A bioeconomic approach to sustainability with ecological thresholds as an operational indicator. Environ. Sustain. Indic. 6, 100027 (2020).Article 

Google Scholar 
Zheng, X. The East Asian experience of Rural Revitalization and its Enlightenment to China—Take Japan and South Korea as an example. Lanzhou J. 11, 200–208 (2019).ADS 

Google Scholar 
Srivastava, P. K., Kulshreshtha, K., Monhanty, C. S., Pushpangadan, P. & Singh, A. Stakeholder-based SWOT analysis for successful municipal solid waste managementin Lucknow, India. Waste Manag 25(5), 531–537 (2005).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Alcon, F., Tapsuwan, S., Martínez-Paz, J. M., Brouwer, R. & Miguel, M. Forecasting deficit irrigation adoption using a mixed stakeholder assessment methodology. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 83, 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2013.07.003 (2014).Article 

Google Scholar 
Chen, Y., Yang, G., Sweeney, S. & Feng, Y. Household biogas use in rural China: a study of opportunities and constraints. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 14(1), 545–549 (2010).Article 

Google Scholar 
Yeh, C. H. A problem-based selection of multi-attribute decision-making methods. Int. Trans. Oper. Res. 9(2), 169–181 (2002).MATH 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Chakraborty, S., & Yeh, C. -H. A simulation comparison of normalization procedures for TOPSIS, In 2009 International Conference on Computers & Industrial Engineering, IEEE, 2009.Yoon, K. & Hwang, C. L. Multiple attribute decision making. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 4(4), 287–288 (1995).
Google Scholar 
Sharma, N., Khan, Z.A., Siddiquee, A.N., Wahid, M.A. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C:J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 233 (2019) 1–10.Maniraj, S. & Thanigaivelan, R. Optimization of electrochemical micromachining process parameters for machining of AMCs with different % compositions of GGBS using Taguchi and TOPSIS methods. Trans. Indian Inst. Met. 72, 3057–3066 (2019).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Martinez-Fernandez, C. et al. Shrinking cities in Australia, Japan, Europe and the USA: From a global process to local policy responses. Prog. Plan. 105, 1–48 (2016).Article 

Google Scholar 
Mo, G. Green poverty reduction: the value orientation and realization path of ecological poverty alleviation in the battle against poverty—a series of studies on the mechanism of improving the performance of precision poverty alleviation. Modern Econ. Discuss. 11, 10–14 (2016).
Google Scholar 
Wu, L. Echanism and path selection of poverty alleviation in deep-poverty areas. Chin. Soft Sci. 7, 63–70 (2018).
Google Scholar 
Shengzu, Gu. et al. Countermeasure reflections on advancing the poverty relief in the 13th five-year plan. China Financial Res 2, 7–16 (2016).
Google Scholar 
Xie, Z. & Xunwu, J. Giving full play to the advantages of financial financing to help lift out of poverty. China Finance 3, 83–84 (2018).
Google Scholar 
Chen, W. A Way to realize the effective linkage between poverty relief and rural revitalization. Guizhou Soc. Sci. 1, 11–14 (2020).
Google Scholar 
Bijker, R. & Haartsen, T. More than counterurbanisation: migration to popular andless-popular rural areas in the Netherlands. Popul. Space Place 18, 643–657 (2012).Article 

Google Scholar  More

Deforestation, in places such as the Amazon, contributes to biodiversity loss.Credit: Ivan Valencia/Bloomberg/Getty

Researchers are relieved that a pivotal summit to finalize a new global agreement to save nature will go ahead this year, after two-years of delays because of the pandemic. But they say the hard work of negotiating an ambitious deal lays ahead.The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) announced yesterday that the meeting will move from Kunming in China to Montreal in Canada. The meeting of representatives from almost 200 member states of the CBD — known as COP15 — will now run from 5 to 17 December. China will continue as president of the COP15 and Huang Runqiu, China’s minister of ecology and environment, will continue as chairman.Conservation and biodiversity scientists were growing increasingly concerned that China’s strict ‘zero COVID’ strategy, which uses measures such as lockdowns to quash all infections, would force the host nation to delay the meeting again. Researchers warned that another setback to the agreement, which aims to halt the alarming rate of species extinctions and protect vulnerable ecosystems, would be disastrous for countries’ abilities to meet ambitious targets to protect biodiversity over the next decade.“We are relieved and thankful that we have a firm date for these critically important biodiversity negotiations within this calendar year,” says Andrew Deutz, an expert in biodiversity law and finance at the Nature Conservancy, a conservation group in Virginia, US. “The global community is already behind in agreeing, let alone implementing, a plan to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030,” he says.With the date now set, Anne Larigauderie, executive secretary of the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, says the key to success in Montreal will be for the new global biodiversity agreement to focus on the direct and indirect drivers of nature loss, and the behaviors that underpin them. “Policy should be led by science, action adequately resourced and change should be transformative,” she adds.New locationThe decision to move the meeting came about after representatives of the global regions who make up the decision-making body of the COP reached a consensus to shift it to Montreal. China and Canada then thrashed out the details of how the move would work. The CBD has provisions that if a host country is unable to hold a COP, the meeting shifts to the home of the convention’s secretariat, Montreal.Announcing the decision, Elizabeth Mrema, executive secretary of the CBD, said in a statement, “I want to thank the government of China for their flexibility and continued commitment to advancing our path towards an ambitious post 2020 Global Biodiversity Framework.”In a statement, Runqiu said, “China would like to emphasize its continued strong commitment, as COP president, to ensure the success of the second part of COP 15, including the adoption of an effective post 2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, and to promote its delivery throughout its presidency.”China also agreed to pay for ministers from the least developed countries and small Island developing states to travel to Montreal to participate in the meeting.Work aheadPaul Matiku, an environmental scientist and head of Nature Kenya, a conservation organization in Nairobi, Kenya, says the move “is a welcome decision” after “the world lost patience after a series of postponements”.But he says that rich nations need to reach deeper into their pockets to help low- and middle-income countries — which are home to much of the world’s biodiversity — to implement the deal, including meeting targets such as protecting at least 30% of the world’s land and seas and reducing the rate of extinction. Disputes over funding already threaten to stall the agreement. At a meeting in Geneva in March, nations failed to make progress on the new deal because countries including Gabon and Kenya argued that the US$10 billion of funding per year proposed in the draft text of the agreement was insufficient. They called for $100 billion per year in aid.“The extent to which the CBD is implemented will depend on the availability of predictable, adequate financial flows from developed nations to developing country parties,” says Matiku.Talks on the agreement are resuming in Nairobi from 21-26 June, where Deutz hopes countries can find common ground on key issues such as financing before heading to Montreal. Having a firm date set for the COP15 will help push negotiations forward, he says.“Negotiators only start to compromise when they are up against a deadline. Now they have one,” he says. More

Current scientific definitions of pondsWe compiled existing scientific definitions of ponds by conducting a backwards and forwards search of papers referenced in or subsequently referencing three seminal pond papers8,17,18 (see “Methods”). We ultimately compiled 54 pond definitions from scientific literature (data available19). The variables most often included in definitions were surface area (91% of definitions), depth (48%), permanence (48%), origin (i.e., natural or human-made; 33%), and standing water (33%; Fig. 2a). When surface area or depth were included in definitions, they were often mentioned qualitatively (e.g., “small” and “shallow”). Of the 61% of definitions that included a maximum pond surface area, the range was 0.1 to 100 ha, the median was 2 ha, and all but two definitions were ≤ 10 ha (Fig. 2b). For depth, only 17% of studies provided a maximum depth cutoff, which ranged 2 to 8 m (Fig. 2c). Of the 26 definitions mentioning permanence, 22 stated that ponds could be temporary or permanent and only three indicated that ponds are exclusively permanent waterbodies. Of the 18 definitions mentioning origin, 17 mentioned that ponds could be natural or human-made with the remaining study indicating ponds can have diverse origins.Figure 2Summary of “pond” definitions from scientific literature including (a) presence of various morphological, biological, and physical characteristics in the definition as blue bars (n = 54 definitions total). Bold black lines indicate the number of definitions with surface area and depth values. Histograms of the upper limits from “pond” definitions for (b) surface area and (c) maximum depth.Full size imageOther important factors included in definitions related to morphometry. For example, 30% of definitions mentioned the potential for plants to colonize the entire basin, which relates to high light penetration (mentioned in 11% of definitions) and/or shallow depths. For example, Wetzel11 defines ponds as having enough light penetration that macrophyte photosynthesis can occur over the entire waterbody. As such, these conditions may be comparable to the littoral region of lakes (11% of definitions). Lastly, 7% of pond definitions mentioned mixing versus stratification, whereby ponds mix more than lakes20 yet less than shallow lakes due to a smaller fetch16.To assess if there was agreement in pond definitions among papers, we examined the number of times each definition was cited. Across the 54 definitions, there were 89 citations of 48 unique papers. Ultimately, most papers (75%) were only cited only once, indicating no consensus in pond definition. The most cited paper was Biggs et al.21, which accounted for 15% of citations. The next two most cited papers were Oertli et al.17 and Sondergaard et al.18, which were seminal papers included in our backwards-forwards search, and each comprised 8% of citations.International definitionsAt an international level, there is no consensus on how to discriminate among ponds, lakes, and wetlands. In North America, wetlands are generally considered to be shallow:  More

de Menocal, P. B. Plio-Pleistocene African climate. Science 270, 53–59 (1995).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
de Menocal, P. B. African climate change and faunal evolution during the Pliocene-Pleistocene. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 220, 3–24 (2004).ADS 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Donges, J. F. et al. Nonlinear detection of paleoclimate-variability transitions possibly related to human evolution. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108, 20422–20427 (2011).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Maslin, M. A. et al. East african climate pulses and early human evolution. Quat. Sci. Rev. 101, 1–17 (2014).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Larrasoaña, J. C., Roberts, A. P. & Rohling, E. J. Dynamics of Green Sahara periods and their role in hominin evolution. PLoS One 8, 76514 (2013).ADS 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Castañeda, I. S. et al. Wet phases in the Sahara/Sahel region and human migration patterns in North Africa. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA. 106, 20159–20163 (2009).ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 

Google Scholar 
United Nations World Food Programme. Scaling up for resilient individuals, communities and systems in the Sahel Operational Reference Note. (2018).Barbier, B., Yacouba, H., Karambiri, H., Zoromé, M. & Somé, B. Human vulnerability to climate variability in the sahel: Farmers’ adaptation strategies in northern burkina faso. Environ. Manag. 43, 790–803 (2009).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Mohamed, A. Ben Climate change risks in Sahelian Africa. Reg. Environ. Chang. 11, 109–117 (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Biasutti, M. Forced Sahel rainfall trends in the CMIP5 archive. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118, 1613–1623 (2013).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Roudier, P., Sultan, B., Quirion, P. & Berg, A. The impact of future climate change on West African crop yields: what does the recent literature say? Glob. Environ. Chang 21, 1073–1083 (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Keeling, R. F. & Keeling, C. D. Atmospheric monthly in situ CO2 data—Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii. In Scripps CO2 Program Data. UC San Diego Library Digital Collections. https://doi.org/10.6075/J08W3BHW (2017).Brandt, M. et al. An unexpectedly large count of trees in the West African Sahara and Sahel. Nature 587, 78–82 (2020).ADS 
PubMed 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Tiedemann, R., Sarnthein, M. & Shackleton, N. J. Astronomic timescale for the Pliocene Atlantic δ18O and dust flux records of Ocean Drilling Program Site 659. Paleoceanography 9, 619–638 (1994).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
de Menocal, P. B., Ruddiman, W. F. & Pokras, E. M. Influences of high‐ and low‐latitude processes on African terrestrial climate: Pleistocene eolian records from equatorial atlantic Ocean Drilling Program Site 663. Paleoceanography 8, 209–242 (1993).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Kuechler, R. R., Dupont, L. M. & Schefuß, E. Hybrid insolation forcing of Pliocene monsoon dynamics in West Africa. Clim. Past 14, 73–84 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Rose, C. et al. Changes in northeast African hydrology and vegetation associated with pliocene-pleistocene sapropel cycles. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 371, 20150243 (2016).Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Tierney, J. E., Pausata, F. S. R. & De Menocal, P. B. Rainfall regimes of the Green Sahara. Sci. Adv. 3, e1601503 (2017).ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Tierney, J. E. & Russell, J. M. Abrupt climate change in southeast tropical Africa influenced by Indian monsoon variability and ITCZ migration. Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, 1–6 (2007).Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Skonieczny, C. et al. Monsoon-driven Saharan dust variability over the past 240,000 years. Sci. Adv. 5, eaav1887 (2019).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 
Article 

Google Scholar 
McGee, D. et al. The magnitude, timing and abruptness of changes in North African dust deposition over the last 20,000 yr. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 371–372, 163–176 (2013).ADS 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Bosmans, J. H. C., Hilgen, F. J., Tuenter, E. & Lourens, L. J. Obliquity forcing of low-latitude climate. Clim. Past 11, 1335–1346 (2015).Article 

Google Scholar 
Bosmans, J. H. C., Drijfhout, S. S., Tuenter, E., Hilgen, F. J. & Lourens, L. J. Response of the North African summer monsoon to precession and obliquity forcings in the EC-Earth GCM. Clim. Dyn. 44, 279–297 (2014).Article 

Google Scholar 
Mantsis, D. F. et al. The response of large-scale circulation to obliquity-induced changes in meridional heating gradients. J. Clim. 27, 5504–5516 (2014).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Rachmayani, R., Prange, M. & Schulz, M. Intra-interglacial climate variability: model simulations of Marine Isotope Stages 1, 5, 11, 13, and 15. Clim. Past 12, 677–695 (2016).Article 

Google Scholar 
Chou, C. & Neelin, J. D. Mechanisms limiting the northward extent of the northern summer monsoons over North America, Asia, and Africa. J. Clim. 16, 406–425 (2003).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Bischoff, T., Schneider, T. & Meckler, A. N. A conceptual model for the response of tropical rainfall to orbital variations. J. Clim. 30, 8375–8391 (2017).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Ehleringer, J. R., Cerling, T. E. & Helliker, B. R. C4 photosynthesis, atmospheric CO2, and climate.Bond, W. J. & Midgley, G. F. A proposed CO2-controlled mechanism of woody plant invasion in grasslands and savannas. Glob. Chang. Biol. 6, 865–869 (2000).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Lehmann, C. E. R., Archibald, S. A., Hoffmann, W. A. & Bond, W. J. Deciphering the distribution of the savanna biome. N. Phytol. 191, 197–209 (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Vallé, F., Dupont, L. M., Leroy, S. A. G. G., Schefuß, E. & Wefer, G. Pliocene environmental change in West Africa and the onset of strong NE trade winds (ODP Sites 659 and 658). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 414, 403–414 (2014).Article 

Google Scholar 
Leroy, S. & Dupont, L. Development of vegetation and continental aridity in northwestern Africa during the Late Pliocene: the pollen record of ODP site 658. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 109, 295–316 (1994).Article 

Google Scholar 
Huang, Y., Dupont, L., Sarnthein, M., Hayes, J. M. & Eglinton, G. Mapping of C4 plant input from North West Africa into North East Atlantic sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 64, 3505–3513 (2000).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Buitenwerf, R., Bond, W. J., Stevens, N. & Trollope, W. S. W. Increased tree densities in South African savannas: >50 years of data suggests CO2 as a driver. Glob. Chang. Biol. 18, 675–684 (2012).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Stevens, N., Lehmann, C. E. R., Murphy, B. P. & Durigan, G. Savanna woody encroachment is widespread across three continents. Glob. Chang. Biol. 23, 235–244 (2017).ADS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Stevens, N., Erasmus, B. F. N., Archibald, S. & Bond, W. J. Woody encroachment over 70 years in South African savannahs: overgrazing, global change or extinction aftershock? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 371, (2016).Kgope, B. S., Bond, W. J. & Midgley, G. F. Growth responses of African savanna trees implicate atmospheric [CO2] as a driver of past and current changes in savanna tree cover. Austral. Ecol. 35, 451–463 (2010).Article 

Google Scholar 
Scheff, J., Seager, R., Liu, H., Coats, S. & Observatory, L. E. Are glacials dry? Consequences for paleoclimatology and for greenhouse warming. J. Clim. 30, 6593–6609 (2017).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Bragg, F. J. et al. Stable isotope and modelling evidence for CO2 as a driver of glacial-interglacial vegetation shifts in southern Africa. Biogeosciences 10, 2001–2010 (2013).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Bhattacharya, T., Tierney, J. E., Addison, J. A. & Murray, J. W. Ice-sheet modulation of deglacial North American monsoon intensification. Nat. Geosci. 11, 848–852 (2018).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
DiNezio, P. N. et al. Glacial changes in tropical climate amplified by the Indian Ocean. Sci. Adv. 4, 1–12 (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
Kuechler, R. R., Schefuß, E., Beckmann, B., Dupont, L. & Wefer, G. NW African hydrology and vegetation during the Last Glacial cycle reflected in plant-wax-specific hydrogen and carbon isotopes. Quat. Sci. Rev. 82, 56–67 (2013).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Raymo, M. E. & Nisancioglu, K. H. The 41 kyr world: Milankovitch’s other unsolved mystery. Paleoceanography 18, 1011 (2003).Davis, B. A. S. & Brewer, S. Orbital forcing and role of the latitudinal insolation/temperature gradient. Clim. Dyn. 32, 143–165 (2009).Article 

Google Scholar 
Bosmans, J. H. C. et al. Precession and obliquity forcing of the freshwater budget over the Mediterranean. Quat. Sci. Rev. 123, 16–30 (2015).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
McGee, D., Broecker, W. S. & Winckler, G. Gustiness: the driver of glacial dustiness? Quat. Sci. Rev. 29, 2340–2350 (2010).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Bradtmiller, L. I. et al. Changes in biological productivity along the northwest African margin over the past 20,000 years. Paleoceanography 31, 185–202 (2016).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Guan, K., Wood, E. F. & Caylor, K. K. Multi-sensor derivation of regional vegetation fractional cover in Africa. Remote Sens. Environ. 124, 653–665 (2012).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Ehleringer, J. R., Cerling, T. E. & Helliker, B. R. C4 photosynthesis, atmospheric CO2, and climate. Oecologia 112, 285–299 (1997).ADS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Sage, R. F. The evolution of C4 photosynthesis. N. Phytol. 161, 341–370 (2004).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Lloyd, J. et al. Contributions of woody and herbaceous vegetation to tropical savanna ecosystem productivity: a quasi-global estimate. Tree Physiol. 28, 451–468 (2008).PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Archibald, S. & Hempson, G. P. Competing consumers: contrasting the patterns and impacts of fire and mammalian herbivory in Africa. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 371, 20150309 (2016).Elderfield, H. et al. Evolution of ocean temperature. Science 337, 704–709 (2012).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Hooghiemstra, H., Lézine, A. M., Leroy, S. A. G., Dupont, L. & Marret, F. Late Quaternary palynology in marine sediments: a synthesis of the understanding of pollen distribution patterns in the NW African setting. Quat. Int. 148, 29–44 (2006).Article 

Google Scholar 
Dupont, L. M. Vegetation zones in NW Africa during the brunhes chron reconstructed from marine palynological data. Quat. Sci. Rev. 12, 189–202 (1993).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Dallmeyer, A., Claussen, M., Lorenz, S. J. & Shanahan, T. The end of the African humid period as seen by a transient comprehensive Earth system model simulation of the last 8000 years. Clim 16, 117–140 (2020).ADS 

Google Scholar 
Collins, J. A. et al. Interhemispheric symmetry of the tropical African rainbelt over the past 23,000 years. Nat. Geosci. 4, 42–45 (2011).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Pastouret, L., Chamley, H., Delibrias, G., Duplessy, J. & Thiede, J. Late quaternary climatic changes in western tropical africa deduced from deep-sea sedimentation off the Niger delta. Oceanol. Acta 1, 217–232 (1978).CAS 

Google Scholar 
Tierney, J. E., Lewis, S. C., Cook, B. I., LeGrande, A. N. & Schmidt, G. A. Model, proxy and isotopic perspectives on the East African Humid Period. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 307, 103–112 (2011).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
COHMAP members. Climatic changes of the last 18,000 years: observations and model simulations. Science 241, 1043–1052 (1988).Article 

Google Scholar 
Street-Perrott, F. A., Marchand, D. S., Roberts, N. & Harrison, S. P. Global lake-level variations from 18,000 to 0 years ago: a palaeoclimate analysis. U.S. Department of Energy Technical Report 46, 20545 (1989).de Menocal, P. B. & Tierney, J. E. Green Sahara: African humid periods paced by Earth’ s orbital changes. Nat. Educ. Knowl. 3(10):12 (2012).Sage, R. F. & Kubien, D. S. Quo vadis C4? An ecophysiological perspective on global change and the future of C4 plants. Photosynth. Res. 77, 209–225 (2003).CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Sarnthein, M., Tetzlaff, G., Koopmann, B., Wolter, K. & Pflaumann, U. Glacial and interglacial wind regimes over the eastern subtropical Atlantic and North-West Africa. Nature 293, 193–196 (1981).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Rowland, G. H. et al. The spatial distribution of aeolian dust and terrigenous fluxes in the tropical Atlantic ocean since the last glacial maximum. Paleoceanogr. Paleoclimatol. 36, 1–17 (2021).Article 

Google Scholar 
Polissar, P. J., Rose, C., Uno, K. T., Phelps, S. R. & DeMenocal, P. Synchronous rise of African C4 ecosystems 10 million years ago in the absence of aridification. Nat. Geosci. 12, 657–660 (2019).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Jullien, E. et al. Low-latitude “dusty events” vs. high-latitude “icy Heinrich events”. Quat. Res. 68, 379–386 (2007).Article 

Google Scholar 
Pye, K. Aeolian Dust and Dust Deposits. (Academic Press, 1987).Skonieczny, C. et al. A three-year time series of mineral dust deposits on the West African margin: sedimentological and geochemical signatures and implications for interpretation of marine paleo-dust records. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 364, 145–156 (2013).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Malaizé, B. et al. The impact of African aridity on the isotopic signature of Atlantic deep waters across the Middle Pleistocene Transition. Quat. Res. 77, 182–191 (2012).Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Lisiecki, L. E. & Raymo, M. E. A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ 18O records. Paleoceanography 20, 1–17 (2005).
Google Scholar 
Polissar, P. J. & D’Andrea, W. J. Uncertainty in paleohydrologic reconstructions from molecular D values. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 129, 146–156 (2014).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Eggleston, S., Schmitt, J., Bereiter, B., Schneider, R. & Fischer, H. Evolution of the stable carbon isotope composition of atmospheric CO2 over the last glacial cycle. Paleoceanography 31, 434–452 (2016).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Tierney, J. E. & deMenocal, P. B. Abrupt shifts in Horn of Africa hydroclimate since the last glacial maximum. Science 342, 843–846 (2013).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Schrag, D. P. et al. The oxygen isotopic composition of seawater during the Last Glacial Maximum. Quat. Sci. Rev. 21, 331–342 (2002).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Vogts, A., Moossen, H., Rommerskirchen, F. & Rullkötter, J. Distribution patterns and stable carbon isotopic composition of alkanes and alkan-1-ols from plant waxes of African rain forest and savanna C3 species. Org. Geochem. 40, 1037–1054 (2009).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Garcin, Y. et al. Reconstructing C3 and C4 vegetation cover using n-alkane carbon isotope ratios in recent lake sediments from Cameroon, Western Central Africa. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 142, 482–500 (2014).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
White, F. The Vegetation of Africa. (UNESCO 1983).Ritchie, J. C., Eyles, C. H. & Haynes, C. V. Sediment and pollen evidence for an early to mid-Holocene humid period in the eastern Sahara. Nature 314, 352–355 (1985).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Watrin, J. et al. Plant migration and plant communities at the time of the ‘green Sahara’. Comptes Rendus—Geosci. 341, 656–670 (2009).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Hély, C. et al. Holocene changes in African vegetation: tradeoff between climate and water availability. Clim 10, 681–686 (2014).ADS 

Google Scholar 
Lézine, A. M. Timing of vegetation changes at the end of the Holocene Humid Period in desert areas at the northern edge of the Atlantic and Indian monsoon systems. Comptes Rendus—Geosci. 341, 750–759 (2009).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Dupont, L. M. & Hooghiemstra, H. The Saharan-Sahelian boundary during the Brunhes chron. Acta Bot. Neerl. 38, 405–415 (1989).Article 

Google Scholar 
Sachse, D. et al. Molecular paleohydrology: interpreting the hydrogen-isotopic composition of lipid biomarkers from photosynthesizing organisms. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 40, 221–249 (2012).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Dansgaard, W. Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16, 436–468 (1964).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Worden, J. et al. Importance of rain evaporation and continental convection in the tropical water cycle. Nature 445, 528–532 (2007).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Risi, C., Bony, S. & Vimeux, F. Influence of convective processes on the isotopic composition (δ18O and δD) of precipitation and water vapor in the tropics: 2 Physical interpretation of the amount effect. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 113, D19306 (2008).ADS 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Risi, C. et al. What controls the isotopic composition of the African monsoon precipitation? Insights from event-based precipitation collected during the 2006 AMMA field campaign. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L24808 (2008).ADS 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Badewien, T., Vogts, A. & Rullkötter, J. n-Alkane distribution and carbon stable isotope composition in leaf waxes of C3 and C4 plants from Angola. Org. Geochem. 89–90, 71–79 (2015).Bezabih, M., Pellikaan, W. F., Tolera, A. & Hendriks, W. H. Evaluation of n-alkanes and their carbon isotope enrichments (d 13 C) as diet composition markers. Anim. Int. J. Anim. Biosci. 5, 57–66 (2011).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Kristen, I. et al. Biomarker and stable carbon isotope analyses of sedimentary organic matter from Lake Tswaing: evidence for deglacial wetness and early Holocene drought from South Africa. 143–160 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10933-009-9393-9 (2010).Magill, C. R., Ashley, G. M. & Freeman, K. H. Water, plants, and early human habitats in eastern Africa. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 110, 1175–1180 (2013).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Cheddadi, R., Carré, M., Nourelbait, M., François, L. & Rhoujjati, A. Early Holocene greening of the Sahara requires Mediterranean winter rainfall. 1–7 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2024898118 (2021).Niedermeyer, E. M. et al. Orbital- and millennial-scale changes in the hydrologic cycle and vegetation in the western African Sahel: insights from individual plant wax δD and δ13C. Quat. Sci. Rev. 29, 2996–3005 (2010).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Adkins, J., deMenocal, P. & Eshel, G. The ‘African humid period’ and the record of marine upwelling from excess 230Th in Ocean Drilling Program Hole 658C. Paleoceanography 21, 1–14 (2006).Article 

Google Scholar 
Mcgee, D. Glacial—interglacial precipitation changes. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 12, 525–557 (2020).Weldeab, S., Lea, D. W., Schneider, R. R. & Andersen, N. 155,000 Years of West African monsoon and ocean thermal evolution. Science 316, 1303–1307 (2007).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Schefuß, E., Schouten, S. & Schneider, R. R. Climatic controls on central African hydrology during the past 20,000 years. Nature 437, 1003–1006 (2005).ADS 
PubMed 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Weijers, J. W. H., Schefuß, E., Schouten, S. & Damsté, J. S. S. Coupled thermal and hydrological evolution of tropical Africa over the last deglaciation. Science 315, 1701–1704 (2007).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Lezine, A. M. & Cazet, J. P. High-resolution pollen record from core KW31, Gulf of Guinea, documents the history of the lowland forests of West Equatorial Africa since 40,000 yr ago. Quat. Res. 64, 432–443 (2005).Article 

Google Scholar 
Marret, F., Scourse, J. D., Versteegh, G., Fred Jansen, J. H. & Schneider, R. Integrated marine and terrestrial evidence for abrupt Congo River palaeodischarge fluctuations during the last deglaciation. J. Quat. Sci. 16, 761–766 (2001).Article 

Google Scholar 
Dupont, L. & Behling, H. Land-sea linkages during deglaciation: High-resolution records from the eastern Atlantic off the coast of Namibia and Angola (ODP site 1078). Quat. Int. 148, 19–28 (2006).Article 

Google Scholar 
Maley, J. & Brenac, P. Vegetation dynamics, palaeoenvironments and climatic changes in the forests of western Cameroon during the last 28,000 years B.P. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 99, 157–187 (1998).Article 

Google Scholar 
Giresse, P., Maley, J. & Brenac, P. Late Quaternary palaeoenvironments in the Lake Barombi Mbo (West Cameroon) deduced from pollen and carbon isotopes of organic matter. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 107, 65–78 (1994).Article 

Google Scholar 
Maley, J. The African rain forest vegetation and palaeoenvironments during late quaternary. Clim. Change 19, 79–98 (1991).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Talbot, M. R. & Johannessen, T. A high resolution paleoclimatic record for the last 27,500 years in tropical West Africa from the carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of lacustrine organic matter. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 110, 23–37 (1992).Anhuf, D. et al. Paleo-environmental change in Amazonian and African rainforest during the LGM. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 239, 510–527 (2006).Article 

Google Scholar 
Elenga, H. et al. Pollen-based biome reconstruction for southern Europe and Africa 18,000 yr BP. J. Biogeogr. 27, 621–634 (2000).Article 

Google Scholar 
Gasse, F., Chalié, F., Vincens, A., Williams, M. A. J. & Williamson, D. Climatic patterns in equatorial and southern Africa from 30,000 to 10,000 years ago reconstructed from terrestrial and near-shore proxy data. Quat. Sci. Rev. 27, 2316–2340 (2008).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Wu, H., Guiot, J., Brewer, S. & Guo, Z. Climatic changes in Eurasia and Africa at the last glacial maximum and mid-Holocene: reconstruction from pollen data using inverse vegetation modelling. Clim. Dyn. 29, 211–229 (2007).Article 

Google Scholar 
Harrison, S. P. & Prentice, C. I. Climate and CO2 controls on global vegetation distribution at the last glacial maximum: analysis based on palaeovegetation data, biome modelling and palaeoclimate simulations. Glob. Chang. Biol. 9, 983–1004 (2003).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Prentice, I. C., Cleator, S. F., Huang, Y. H., Harrison, S. P. & Roulstone, I. Reconstructing ice-age palaeoclimates: quantifying low-CO2 effects on plants. Glob. Planet. Change 149, 166–176 (2017).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Prentice, I. C., Villegas-Diaz, R. & Harrison, S. P. Accounting for atmospheric carbon dioxide variations in pollen-based reconstruction of past hydroclimates. Glob. Planet. Change 103790 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2022.103790 (2022).Abell, J. T., Winckler, G., Anderson, R. F. & Herbert, T. D. Poleward and weakened westerlies during Pliocene warmth. Nature 589, 70–75 (2021).ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Winckler, G., Anderson, R. F. & Schlosser, P. Equatorial Pacific productivity and dust flux during the mid-Pleistocene climate transition. Paleoceanography 20, 1–10 (2005).Article 

Google Scholar 
McGee, D. & Mukhopadhyay, S. Extraterrestrial He in sediments: from recorder of asteroid collisions to timekeeper of global environmental changes. in Advances in Isotope Geochemistry 155–176 (Springer, 2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28836-4_7Costa, K. & McManus, J. Efficacy of 230Th normalization in sediments from the Juan de Fuca Ridge, northeast Pacific Ocean. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 197, 215–225 (2017).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Nier, A. O. & Schlutter, D. J. Extraction of helium from individual interplanetary dust particles by step-heating. Meteoritics 27, 166–173 (1992).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
McGee, D. et al. Tracking eolian dust with helium and thorium: impacts of grain size and provenance. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 175, 47–67 (2016).ADS 
CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Bhattacharya, A. Application of the Helium Isotopic System to Accretion of Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Dust Through the Cenozoic. (Harvard University, 2012).Ebisuzaki, W. A method to estimate the statistical significance of a correlation when the data are serially correlated. J. Clim. 10, 2147–2153 (1997).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Torrence, C. & Compo, G. P. A practical guide to wavelet analysis. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 79, 61–78 (1998).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Grinsted, A., Moore, J. C. & Jevrejeva, S. Application of the cross wavelet transform and wavelet coherence to geophysical time series. Nonlinear Process. Geophys. 11, 515–533 (2004).Article 

Google Scholar 
Berger, A. L. Long-term variations of daily insolation and Quaternary climatic changes. J. Atmos. Sci. 35, 2361–2367 (1978).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Berger, A. & Loutre, M. F. Insolation values for the climate of the last 10 million years. Quat. Sci. Rev. 10, 297–317 (1991).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Eisenman, I. & Huybers, P. J. daily_insolation. (2006).Thyng, K. M., Greene, C. A., Hetland, R. D., Zimmerle, H. M. & DiMarco, S. F. True colors of oceanography. Oceanography 29, 9–13 (2016).Article 

Google Scholar 
Lüthi, D. et al. High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000–800,000 years before present. Nature 453, 379–382 (2008).ADS 
PubMed 
Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar 
Rommerskirchen, F. et al. A north to south transect of Holocene southeast Atlantic continental margin sediments: relationship between aerosol transport and compound-specific δ13C land plant biomarker and pollen records. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4, (2003).Zhao, M., Dupont, L., Eglinton, G. & Teece, M. n-Alkane and pollen reconstruction of terrestrial climate and vegetation for N.W. Africa over the last 160 kyr. Org. Geochem. 34, 131–143 (2003).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Küechler, R. R. A Revised Orbital Forcing Concept of West African Climate and Vegetation Variability During the Pliocene and the Last Glacial Cycle-Molecular Isotopic Approach and Proxy Calibration. (University of Bremen, 2015). More

Haque, M. N. Dietary manipulation: A sustainable way to mitigate methane emissions from ruminants. J. Anim. Sci. Technol. 60, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40781-018-0175-7(2018) (2018).Article 

Google Scholar 
IPCC, 2021: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press (in press).Lauder, A. R. et al. Offsetting methane emissions—An alternative to emission equivalence metrics. Int. J. Greenh. 12, 419–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2012.11.028 (2013).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Hill, J., McSweeney, C., Wright, A. G., Bishop-Hurley, G. & Kalantar-Zadeh, K. Measuring methane production from ruminants. Trends Biotechnol. 34, 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.10.004 (2016).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Van Zanten, H. H. E. et al. Defining a land boundary for sustainable livestock consumption. Glob Change Biol. 24, 4185–4194. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14321 (2018).ADS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Naumann, H. D., Tedeschi, L. O., Zeller, W. E. & Huntley, N. F. The role of condensed tannins in ruminant animal production: Advances, limitations and future directions. Rev. Bras. de Zootec. 46, 929–949. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-92902017001200009 (2017).Article 

Google Scholar 
Mueller-Harvey, I. Unravelling the conundrum of tannins in animal nutrition and health. J. Sci. Food Agric. 86, 2010–2037. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2577 (2006).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Burggraaf, V. T. et al. Morphology and agronomic performance of white clover with increased flowering and condensed tannin concentration. N. Z. J. Agric. Res. 49, 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.2006.9513704 (2006).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Einarsson, R. et al. Crop production and nitrogen use in European cropland and grassland 1961–2019. Sci. Data 8, 288. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-021-01061-z (2021).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Salminen, J.-P. & Karonen, M. Chemical ecology of tannins and other phenolics: we need a change in approach. Funct. Ecol. 25, 325–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01826.x (2011).Article 

Google Scholar 
Zeller, W. E. Activity, purification, and analysis of condensed tannins: current state of affairs and future endeavors. Crop Sci. 59, 886–904. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2018.05.0323 (2019).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Barbehenn, R. V. & Peter Constabel, C. Tannins in plant–herbivore interactions. Phytochemistry 72, 1551–1565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.01.040 (2011).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Chung, Y. H. et al. Enteric methane emission, diet digestibility, and nitrogen excretion from beef heifers fed sainfoin or alfalfa1. J. Anim. Sci. 91, 4861–4874. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-6498 (2013).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Christensen, R. G. et al. Effects of feeding birdsfoot trefoil hay on neutral detergent fiber digestion, nitrogen utilization efficiency, and lactational performance by dairy cows1. J. Dairy Sci. 98, 7982–7992. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-9348 (2015).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Jonker, A. & Yu, P. The occurrence, biosynthesis, and molecular structure of proanthocyanidins and their effects on legume forage protein precipitation, digestion and absorption in the ruminant digestive tract. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 18, 1105. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18051105 (2017).CAS 
Article 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Barry, T. N. & McNabb, W. C. The implications of condensed tannins on the nutritive value of temperate forages fed to ruminants. Br. J. Nutr. 81, 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114599000501 (1999).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Verma, S., Taube, F. & Malisch, C. S. Examining the variables leading to apparent incongruity between antimethanogenic potential of tannins and their observed effects in ruminants—A review. Sustainability 13, 2743. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052743 (2021).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Malisch, C. S. et al. Large variability of proanthocyanidin content and composition in Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia). J. Agric. Food Chem. 63, 10234–10242. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04946 (2015).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Verma, S., Salminen, J.-P., Taube, F. & Malisch, C. S. Large inter- and intraspecies variability of polyphenols and proanthocyanidins in eight temperate forage species indicates potential for their exploitation as nutraceuticals. J. Agric. Food Chem. 69, 12445–12455. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c03898 (2021).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Lorenz, H., Reinsch, T., Kluß, C., Taube, F. & Loges, R. Does the admixture of forage herbs affect the yield performance, yield stability and forage quality of a grass clover ley?. Sustainability 12, 5842. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145842 (2020).Article 

Google Scholar 
Hofer, D. et al. Yield of temperate forage grassland species is either largely resistant or resilient to experimental summer drought. J. Appl. Ecol. 53, 1023–1034. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12694 (2016).Article 

Google Scholar 
Mueller-Harvey, I. et al. Benefits of condensed tannins in forage legumes fed to ruminants : Importance of structure, concentration and diet compsition. Crop Sci. 59, 861–885. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2017.06.0369 (2017).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Loza, C. et al. Assessing the potential of diverse forage mixtures to reduce enteric methane emissions in vitro. Animals 11, 1126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11041126 (2021).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Min, B. R. et al. Dietary mitigation of enteric methane emissions from ruminants: A review of plant tannin mitigation options. Anim. Nutr. 6, 231–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2020.05.002 (2020).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
van Gastelen, S., Dijkstra, J. & Bannink, A. Are dietary strategies to mitigate enteric methane emission equally effective across dairy cattle, beef cattle, and sheep?. J. Dairy Sci. 102, 6109–6130. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2018-15785 (2019).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Hatew, B. et al. Relationship between in vitro and in vivo methane production measured simultaneously with different dietary starch sources and starch levels in dairy cattle. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 202, 20–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.01.012 (2015).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Storm, I. M. L. D., Hellwing, A. L. F., Nielsen, N. I. & Madsen, J. Methods for measuring and estimating methane emission from ruminants. Animals 2, 160–183. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani2020160 (2012).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Dewhurst, R. J., Delaby, L., Moloney, A., Boland, T. & Lewis, E. Nutritive value of forage legumes used for grazing and silage. Irish J. Agric. Food Res. 48, 167–187 (2009).CAS 

Google Scholar 
Hakl, J., Fuksa, P., Konečná, J. & Šantrůček, J. Differences in the crude protein fractions of lucerne leaves and stems under different stand structures. Grass Forage Sci. 71, 413–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/gfs.12192 (2016).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Jayanegara, A., Makkar, H. & Becker, K. The use of principal component analysis in identifying and integrating variables related to forage quality and methane production. J. Indones. Trop. Anim. 34, 241–247. https://doi.org/10.14710/jitaa.34.4.241-247 (2009).Article 

Google Scholar 
Maccarana, L. et al. Methodological factors affecting gas and methane production during in vitro rumen fermentation evaluated by meta-analysis approach. J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol. 7, 35–35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-016-0094-8 (2016).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Baruah, L., Malik, P. K., Kolte, A. P., Dhali, A. & Bhatta, R. Methane mitigation potential of phyto-sources from Northeast India and their effect on rumen fermentation characteristics and protozoa in vitro. Vet. World 11, 809–818. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2018.809-818 (2018).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Hassanat, F. & Benchaar, C. Assessment of the effect of condensed (acacia and quebracho) and hydrolysable (chestnut and valonea) tannins on rumen fermentation and methane production in vitro. J. Sci. Food Agric. 93, 332–339. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5763 (2013).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Naumann, H. et al. Relationships between structures of condensed tannins from texas legumes and methane production during in vitro rumen digestion. Molecules 23, 2123. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23092123 (2018).CAS 
Article 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Jayanegara, A., Makkar, H. P. S. & Becker, K. Addition of purified tannin sources and polyethylene glycol treatment on methane emission and rumen fermentation in vitro. Media Peternakan 38, 57–63. https://doi.org/10.5398/medpet.2015.38.1.57 (2015).Article 

Google Scholar 
Jayanegara, A., Goel, G., Makkar, H. P. S. & Becker, K. Divergence between purified hydrolysable and condensed tannin effects on methane emission, rumen fermentation and microbial population in vitro. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 209, 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.08.002 (2015).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Hatew, B. et al. Diversity of condensed tannin structures affects rumen in vitro methane production in sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) accessions. Grass Forage Sci. 70, 474–490. https://doi.org/10.1111/gfs.12125 (2015).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Huyen, N. T. et al. Structural features of condensed tannins affect in vitro ruminal methane production and fermentation characteristics. J. Agric. Sci. 154, 1474–1487. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859616000393 (2016).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Salami, S. A. et al. Characterisation of the ruminal fermentation and microbiome in lambs supplemented with hydrolysable and condensed tannins. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiy061 (2018).Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Salminen, J. P., Karonen, M. & Sinkkonen, J. Chemical ecology of tannins: Recent developments in tannin chemistry reveal new structures and structure-activity patterns. Chem.-Eur. J. 17, 2806–2816. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201002662 (2011).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Bezabih, M., Pellikaan, W. F., Tolera, A., Khan, N. A. & Hendriks, W. Chemical composition and in vitro total gas and methane production of forage species from the Mid Rift Valley grasslands of Ethiopia. Grass Forage Sci. 69, 635–643. https://doi.org/10.1111/gfs.12091 (2013).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Navarrete, S., Kemp, P. D., Pain, S. J. & Back, P. J. Bioactive compounds, aucubin and acteoside, in plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) and their effect on in vitro rumen fermentation. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 222, 158–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2016.10.008 (2016).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Basha, N. A., Scogings, P. F. & Nsahlai, I. V. Effects of season, browse species and polyethylene glycol addition on gas production kinetics of forages in the subhumid subtropical savannah, South Africa. J. Sci. Food Agric. 93, 1338–1348. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5895 (2013).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
O’Donovan, L. & Brooker, J. D. Effect of hydrolysable and condensed tannins on growth, morphology and metabolism of Streptococcus gallolyticus (S. caprinus) and Streptococcus bovis. Microbiology 147, 1025–1033. https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-147-4-1025 (2001).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Bhatta, R. et al. Difference in the nature of tannins on in vitro ruminal methane and volatile fatty acid production and on methanogenic archaea and protozoal populations. J. Dairy Sci. 92, 5512–5522. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2008-1441 (2009).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Naumann, H. D. et al. Effect of molecular weight and concentration of legume condensed tannins on in vitro larval migration inhibition of Haemonchus contortus. Vet. Parasitol. 199, 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.09.025 (2014).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Jayanegara, A., Goel, G., Makkar, H.P.S., & Becker, K. Reduction in
methane emissions from ruminants by plant secondary metabolites: Effects of polyphenols and saponins. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Rome, Italy, 151–157. ISBN 978-92-5-106697-3 (2010).Hatew, B. et al. Impact of variation in structure of condensed tannins from sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) on in vitro ruminal methane production and fermentation characteristics. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 100, 348–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12336 (2016).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Waghorn, G. C., Douglas, G. B., Niezen, J. H., McNabb, W. C. & Foote, A. G. Forages with condensed tannins-their management and nutritive value for ruminants. Proc. N. Z. Grassl. Assoc., 60, 89−98 (1998).Woodward, S. L., Waghorn, G. C. & Lassey, K. Early indications that feeding Lotus will reduce methane emissions from ruminants. Proc. N. Z. Soc. Anim. Prod. 61, 23–26 (2001).
Google Scholar 
Molle, G. et al. Responses to condensed tannins of flowering sulla (Hedysarum coronarium L.) grazed by dairy sheep: Part 1: Effects on feeding behaviour, intake, diet digestibility and performance. Livest. Sci. 123, 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2008.11.018 (2009).Article 

Google Scholar 
Orlandi, T., Kozloski, G. V., Alves, T. P., Mesquita, F. R. & Ávila, S. C. Digestibility, ruminal fermentation and duodenal flux of amino acids in steers fed grass forage plus concentrate containing increasing levels of Acacia mearnsii tannin extract. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 210, 37–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.09.012 (2015).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Patra, A. K. & Yu, Z. Effects of adaptation of in vitro rumen culture to garlic oil, nitrate, and saponin and their combinations on methanogenesis, fermentation, and abundances and diversity of microbial populations. Front. Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.01434 (2015).Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Niderkorn, V. et al. Effect of increasing the proportion of chicory in forage-based diets on intake and digestion by sheep. Animal 13, 718–726. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731118002185 (2019).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Lee, J., Hemmingson, N., Minneé, E. & Clark, C. Management strategies for chicory (Cichorium intybus) and plantain (Plantago lanceolata): Impact on dry matter yield, nutritive characteristics, and plant density. Crop Pasture Sci. 66, 168. https://doi.org/10.1071/CP14181 (2015).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Cong, W.-F., Jing, J., Rasmussen, J., Søegaard, K. & Eriksen, J. Forbs enhance productivity of unfertilised grass-clover leys and support low-carbon bioenergy. Sci. Rep. 7, 1422. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-01632-4 (2017).ADS 
CAS 
Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar 
Sanderson, M. A., Labreveux, M., Hall, M. H. & Elwinger, G. F. Nutritive value of chicory and English plantain forage. Crop Sci. 43, 1797. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2003.1797 (2003).CAS 
Article 

Google Scholar 
Van Soest, P. J., Robertson, J. B. & Lewis, B. A. Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci. 74, 3583–3597. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(91)78551-2 (1991).Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Engström, M. T. et al. Rapid qualitative and quantitative analyses of proanthocyanidin oligomers and polymers by UPLC-MS/MS. J. Agric. Food Chem. 62, 3390–3399. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf500745y (2014).CAS 
Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar 
Menke, K. & Steingass, H. Estimation of the energetic feed value obtained from chemical analysis and in vitro gas production using rumen fluid. Anim. Res. Dev. 28, 7–55 (1988).
Google Scholar 
R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2021).Venables, B. & Ripley, B. Generalised linear models. In Modern Applied Statistics With S.(4th edition) 183–208 (Springer, 2013). More

Genome’s collection and phylogenetic analysisThe study examined the genomes of 139 isolates, 61 of environmental samples (ENV) and 78 clinical (CLI) (Supplementary Table 1, Supplementary Fig. 1), with origin in 21 countries: USA (23/139, 17%), UK, Portugal and Spain (each 15/139, 33%), China (14/139, 10%), Germany (13/139, 9%), Thailand (11/139, 8%) and other countries (each  More