Ecology

Our results show that the average diel activity patterns of Ae. aegypti populations in both Miami, FL and in Brownsville, TX were very similar; they both had two peaks, one in the early morning and the other in the evening, and the average host-seeking peaks are between 7:00 and 8:00 and between 19:00 and 20:00 (Fig. 4). Similar observations were previously reported by several investigators3,4,10,11,12 and the bimodal diel activity pattern is the most frequently reported for Ae. aegypti populations worldwide. However, variations between peak activity have been detected between populations. In East Africa, for instance, Trpis et al.3 reported peak activity at 7:00 and at 19:00, whereas McClelland10 reported peak activity two or three hours after sunrise (9:00 or 10:00) and one or two hours before sunset (17:00 or 16:00). Similarly, in the United States, Smith et al.7 observed a bimodal diel activity pattern for Ae. aegypti, but the evening peak was earlier, between 17:00 and 19:00. Despite these variations, the spacing of the peaks is similar in all these studies despite the fact that these studies were conducted in ecologically and climatically diverse locations.The activity patterns observed at site 3 in Brownsville (Fig. 2) and at site 1 in Miami (Fig. 1) were trimodal. In Brownsville, the trimodal activity peaks were between 6:30 and 7:30, 9:30 and 10:30, and 18:30 and 19:30 (Fig. 2), and in Miami the trimodal peaks were between 7:00 and 8:00, 9:00 and 10:00 and between 19:00 and 20:00 (Fig. 1). Interestingly, the timing of the third peak was similar in both Brownsville site 3 and Miami site 1 suggesting similar underlying factors despite geographic distance, different ecology, and different climate. Brownsville, Texas, is in the Lower Rio Grande Alluvial Floodplain ecoregion. The climate is humid subtropical and urbanization has removed most of the indigenous palm trees and floodplain forests vegetation (https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2018-05/documents/brownsvilletx.pdf). Miami is in the Tropical Florida Ecoregion. Similar to Brownsville, Texas, urbanization and agriculture has replaced most of the indigenous Pine Rockland vegetation. Trimodal biting patterns for Ae. aegypti have been observed before in Trinidad by Chadee and Martinez4, but the middle peak was observed at 11:00 which is half an hour to an hour later than what we observed in Miami and Brownsville, respectively (Figs. 1 and 2). While the morning and evening peaks coincide with human outdoor activity, the middle peak occurs during high heat conditions and the factors that lead to this peak or its importance in the epidemiology of Ae. aegypti-borne arboviral diseases are currently not known. The studies by McClelland13 observed multiple activity peaks in an East African population of Ae. aegypti. The significance of the different activity patterns to the epidemiology of Ae. aegypti-borne arboviral diseases are currently unknown and we think they need more investigation especially since Ae. aegypti-borne arboviral infections have been rising in the recent past14,15.We observed that the host-seeking activity peaks were consistent between 5:45 and 7:30 and between 18:00 and 20:45 (Figs. 1 and 2). These observations are important in planning and conducting control operations directed at the adult Ae. aegypti female populations. During the 2016 Zika outbreak, there was no specific information on the host-seeking activity patterns of Ae. aegypti in Miami Dade County and the adulticide treatment implemented as part of an integrated approach targeted the morning activity16. The integrated approach effectively reduced the vector population and interrupted the transmission of the Zika virus; however, it highlighted the need for site-specific information on the diel activity patterns of Ae. aegypti in Miami Dade County in particular and the CONUS in general. There have been sporadic Ae. aegypti-borne arboviral disease outbreaks in Miami Dade County, FL and the city of Brownsville, TX17,18,19,20,21, in the future we will be better prepared to conduct effective adulticide applications with the current knowledge of the diel activity patterns of Ae. aegypti in these areas. Furthermore, we are now better equipped to educate the public on how to minimize exposure to Ae. aegypti-borne arboviral diseases by avoiding outdoor activities during peak biting activity periods.In our studies, we used BG-Sentinel 2 traps and monitored them every hour, twenty-four hours a day over 96 h, a method with some similarities to that used by Smith et al.7. In the past, diel biting activity studies were carried out using human landing catches following the methods primarily established by Haddow22. To our knowledge, only two studies have previously used sampling procedures not based on human landing catches to study the biting activity patterns of Ae. aegypti; the study by Ortega-Lopez et al.6 used mosquito electrocuting traps, and the study by Smith et al.7 used a mechanical rotator mosquito trap. In the present study, the use of BG-Sentinel II traps had the advantage that it was specifically designed to capture female host-seeking Ae. aegypti8,9. In addition, attached BG-Counter devices can keep track of the number of mosquitoes captured per specified unit time and environmental conditions, and store the information in a cloud server. However, the BG-Sentinel 2 traps collected a wide variety of mosquito species, (Table 1), and to keep track of specific species captured each hour, we had to monitor them every hour.Overall, we present data on the diel activity of Ae. aegypti populations in two cities in the southern United States. In both cities the activity patterns were bimodal; there were peaks of activity in the mornings and the evenings. The significance of these observations is that these peaks can be targeted to improve the effectiveness of adulticide treatments aimed at controlling Ae. aegypti adult populations. Using BG-Sentinel 2 traps eliminates individual variations associated with human landing catches and the associated danger of infections from wild mosquitoes especially during ongoing outbreaks. More

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Laboratory for Integrative Biodiversity Research (LIBRe), Finnish Museum of Natural History (LUOMUS), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandStefano Mammola, Jagoba Malumbres-Olarte, Pedro Cardoso, Caroline S. Fukushima, Tuuli Korhonen, Marija Miličić & Joni A. SaarinenMolecular Ecology Group (MEG), Water Research Institute, National Research Council of Italy (CNR-IRSA), Largo Tonolli 50, 28922, Verbania Pallanza, ItalyStefano Mammola & Alejandro MartínezCE3C – Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes / Azorean Biodiversity Group and Universidade dos Açores, Angra do Heroísmo, Azores, PortugalJagoba Malumbres-OlarteAlbert Katz International School for Desert Studies, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus, Beersheba, IsraelValeria ArabeskyBlaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus, Beersheba, IsraelValeria Arabesky & Yael LubinColección Nacional de Arácnidos, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, MexicoDiego Alejandro Barrales-AlcaláEnvironmental Biology Division, Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences and Museum of Natural History, University of the Philippines Los Banos, 4031, Los Baños, PhilippinesAimee Lynn Barrion-DupoCentro Universitario de Rivera, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, UruguayMarco Antonio BenamúLab. Ecotoxicología de Artrópodos Terrestres, Centro Univeritario de Rivera, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, UruguayMarco Antonio BenamúLaboratorio Ecología del Comportamiento, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas clemente Estable (IIBCE), Montevideo, UruguayMarco Antonio BenamúDitsong National Museum of Natural History, PO Box 4197, Pretoria, 0001, South AfricaTharina L. BirdDepartment of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield, 0028, South AfricaTharina L. BirdFreelance translator, Verbania Pallanza, ItalyMaria BogomolovaDepartment of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, Komotini, GreeceMaria ChatzakiDepartment of Life sciences, National Chung Hsing University, No.145 Xingda Rd., South Dist., Taichung City, 402204, TaiwanRen-Chung Cheng & Tien-Ai ChuDepartment of Biology, Macelwane Hall, 3507 Laclede Avenue, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, 63103, USALeticia M. Classen-RodríguezCroatian Biospeleological Society, Rooseveltov trg 6, Zagreb, CroatiaIva Čupić & Martina PavlekProgram Sarjana, Fakultas Biologi, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, IndonesiaNaufal Urfi Dhiya’ulhaqInsectarium de Montréal, Espace pour la vie, 4101, rue Sherbrooke Est, Montréal, Québec, H1X 2B2, CanadaAndré-Philippe Drapeau PicardSerket, Arachnid Collection of Egypt (ACE), Cairo, EgyptHisham K. El-HennawyErzincan Binali Yıldırım University, Faculty of Science and Arts, Biology Department, 24002, Erzincan, TurkeyMert ElvericiThe National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 9190401, IsraelZeana Ganem & Efrat Gavish-RegevThe Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 9190401, IsraelZeana GanemBotswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, BotswanaNaledi T. 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BOX 40658- 00100, Nairobi, KenyaGrace Mwende KiokoSchool for Advanced Studies IUSS, Science, Technology and Society Department, 25100, Pavia, ItalyVeronica NanniInstitute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaYusoff Norma-RashidDepartment of Animal and Environmental Biology, Federal University, Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti State, NigeriaDaniel NwankwoTe Aka Mātuatua School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New ZealandChristina J. PaintingIndependent researcher, Toronto, CanadaAleck PangMuseo Civico di Scienze Naturali “E. Caffi”, Piazza Cittadella, 10, I-24129, Bergamo, ItalyPaolo PantiniRuđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000, Zagreb, CroatiaMartina PavlekBiodiversity Research Laboratory, Moreton Morrell, Warwickshire College University Centre, Warwickshire, United KingdomRichard PearceInstitute for Coastal and Marine Research, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South AfricaJulien PétillonDepartment of Entomology, University of Antananrivo, Antananarivo, MadagascarOnjaherizo Christian RaberahonaSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68588, United StatesLaura Segura-HernándezDepartment of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, Ontario, M1C 1A4, CanadaLenka SentenskáNatural Sciences, Auckland War Memorial Museum, Parnell, Auckland, 1010, New ZealandLeilani WalkerTe Pūnaha Matatini, University of Auckland, Auckland, New ZealandLeilani WalkerMurang’a University of Technology, Department of Physical & Biological Sciences, P.O.Box 75-10200, Murang’a, KenyaCharles M. WaruiInstitute of Biology and Earth Sciences, Pomeranian University in Słupsk, Arciszewskiego 22a, 76-200, Słupsk, PolandKonrad WiśniewskiZoological Museum, Biodiversity Unit, FI-20014, University of Turku, Turku, FinlandAlireza ZamaniDepartment of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USAAngela ChuangDepartment of Entomology and Nematology, Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred, Florida, USAAngela ChuangConceptualization: SM, JM-O, CS, AC; Data collection & validation: all authors; Data management: SM, VN, AC; Data analysis & visualization (Figs. 2–5): SM; Summary illustration (Fig. 1): JM-O; Writing (first draft): SM; Writing, contributions: JM-O, CS, AC; All authors read the text, provided comments, suggestions, and corrections, and approved the final version. More

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doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00888-9

ReferencesLeBrun, E. G., Jones, M., Plowes, R. M. & Gilbert, L. E. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119, e2114558119 (2022).PubMed 
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