Ecology

School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, CanadaNancy ShackelfordEcology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USANancy Shackelford, Nichole Barger, Julie E. Larson & Katharine L. SudingDepartamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, BrazilGustavo B. PaternoDepartment of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, Restoration Ecology Research Group, Technical University of Munich, Freising, GermanyGustavo B. PaternoUS Geological Survey, Southwest Biological Science Center, Moab, UT, USADaniel E. Winkler & Stephen E. FickSchool of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, AustraliaTodd E. EricksonKings Park Science, Department of Biodiversity Conservation and Attractions, Kings Park, Western Australia, AustraliaTodd E. Erickson & Peter J. GolosDepartment of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV, USAElizabeth A. LegerUSDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR, USALauren N. Svejcar, Chad S. Boyd & Kirk W. DaviesCollege of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, AustraliaMartin F. BreedDepartment of Animal and Range Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USAAkasha M. FaistSchool of Natural Sciences and ARC Training Centre for Forest Value, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, AustraliaPeter A. HarrisonProgram in Ecology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USAMichael F. CurranUSDA FS – Southern Research Station, Research Triangle Park, NC, USAQinfeng GuoDepartment of Nature Conservation and Landscape Planning, Anhalt University of Applied Sciences, Bernburg, GermanyAnita Kirmer & Sandra DullauSchool of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USADarin J. LawDepartment of Agricultural Sciences, South Eastern Kenya University, Kitui, KenyaKevin Z. MgangaUS Geological Survey, Southwest Biological Science Center, Flagstaff, AZ, USASeth M. Munson & Hannah L. FarrellUS Department of Agriculture – Agricultural Research Service Rangeland Resources and Systems Research Unit, Fort Collins, CO, USALauren M. PorenskyInstituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Catamarca, Catamarca, ArgentinaR. Emiliano QuirogaCátedra de Manejo de Pastizales Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Catamarca, Catamarca, ArgentinaR. Emiliano QuirogaMTA-DE Lendület Functional and Restoration Ecology Research Group, Debrecen, HungaryPéter TörökTennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, Division of Water Resources, Nashville, TN, USAClaire E. WainwrightHirola Conservation Programme, Nairobi, KenyaAli AbdullahiUSDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Merced Field Office, Merced, CA, USAMatt A. BahmNational Park Service, Southeast Utah Group, Moab, UT, USAElizabeth A. BallengerThe Nature Conservancy of Oregon, Burns, OR, USAOwen W. BaughmanPlant Conservation Unit, Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South AfricaCarina BeckerUniversity of Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, Albacete, SpainManuel Esteban Lucas-BorjaUniversity of Northern British Columbia, 3333 University Way, Prince George, British Columbia, CanadaCarla M. Burton & Philip J. BurtonInstitute of Applied Sciences, Malta College for Arts, Sciences and Technology, Fgura, MaltaEman Calleja & Alex CaruanaPlant Conservation Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South AfricaPeter J. CarrickUSDA, Agricultural Research Service, Great Basin Rangelands Research Unit, Reno, NV, USACharlie D. ClementsLendület Seed Ecology Research Group, Institute of Ecology and Botany, Centre for Ecological Research, Debrecen, HungaryBalázs Deák, Réka Kiss & Orsolya ValkóMurrang Earth Sciences, Ngunnawal Country, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, AustraliaJessica DrakeGreat Ecology, Denver, CO, USAJoshua EldridgeUSDA-ARS Pest Management Research Unit, Northern Plains Agricultural Research Laboratory, Sidney, MT, USAErin EspelandGerman Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, GermanyMagda GarbowskiDepartment of Ecology, Brandenburg University of Technology, Cottbus, GermanyEnrique G. de la RivaBiodiversity Management Branch, Environmental Resource Management Department, Cape Town, South AfricaPenelope A. GreyGreening Australia, Melbourne, Victoria, AustraliaBarry HeydenrychDepartment of Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch Central, Stellenbosch, South AfricaPatricia M. HolmesNatural Resource Management and Environmental Sciences, Cal Poly State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, USAJeremy J. JamesDepartment of Biology, University of Nebraska-Kearney, Kearney, NE, USAJayne Jonas-BrattenNegaunee Institute for Plant Conservation Science and Action, Chicago Botanic Garden, Glencoe, IL, USAAndrea T. KramerDepartment of Botany, University of Granada, Granada, SpainJuan LoriteInteruniversity Institute for Earth System Research, University of Granada, Granada, SpainJuan LoriteNew Zealand Department of Conservation, Christchurch, New ZealandC. Ellery MayenceDepartamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química inorgánica, ESCET, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid, SpainLuis Merino-MartínÖMKi – Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, Budapest, HungaryTamás MigléczHadison Park, Kimberley, South AfricaSuanne Jane MiltonWolwekraal Conservation and Research Organisation (WCRO), Prince Albert, South AfricaSuanne Jane MiltonUS Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USAThomas A. MonacoUniversity of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USAArlee M. MontalvoDepartment of Environment and Agronomy, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA-CSIC), Madrid, SpainJose A. Navarro-CanoForest and Rangeland Stewardship Department, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USAMark W. PaschkeInstituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral (UNPA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Santa Cruz, ArgentinaPablo Luis PeriUSDA – NRCS, Bozeman, MT, USAMonica L. PokornyUSDA Agricultural Research Service, Fort Keogh Livestock and Range Research Laboratory, Miles City, MT, USAMatthew J. RinellaPlant Science, Western Cape Department of Agriculture, Elsenburg, South AfricaNelmarie SaaymanRed Rock Resources LLC, Miles City, MT, USAMerilynn C. SchantzBush Heritage Australia, Eurardy, Western Australia, AustraliaTina ParkhurstDeptartment of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USAEric W. SeabloomHolden Arboretum, Kirtland, OH, USAKatharine L. StubleDepartment of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USAShauna M. UselmanDepartment of Wildland Resources & Ecology Center, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USAKari VeblenDepartment of Biology, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, CanadaScott WilsonCentre of eResearch and Digital Innovation, Federation University Australia, Ballarat, Victoria, AustraliaMegan WongSchool of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, ChinaZhiwei XuInstitute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USAKatharine L. Suding More

Tick paralysis is a common tick-borne illness in humans and animals throughout the world, caused by neurotoxins produced in the salivary glands of ticks and secreted into a host during the course of feeding by females and immature stages19. Fifty-nine ixodid and fourteen argasid ticks are currently believed to be involved in the transmission of tick paralysis worldwide19, 20. In Australia, I. holocyclus is considered to be the leading tick species implicated in the transmission of tick paralysis primarily in dogs, but also other species, viz. cats, sheep, cattle, goats, swine and horses. Humans are also occasionally affected, and the disease can be fatal2, 21. A second tick species, I. cornuatus has also been implicated in the transmission of tick paralysis in Australia; however, it is also considered a minor player in this disease22. Given the differences in their biology, distribution, and natural history of these two species, we focused on estimating the spatial distribution of I. holocyclus in the present study. We recognize, however, that it is important to consider the distributions of both species for proper epidemiological planning and management of tick paralysis in Australia.Ecological niche modeling is a well-tested approach for estimating species distributions based on abiotic factors13, 23. Several new recommendations have been made in recent years for proper construction of niche models; such as the appropriate thinning of occurrence data24, consideration of an accessible area for a species being studied (M)25, thorough exploration of model complexity26, 27, and use of multiple statistical criteria for model selection28, 29. We carefully considered all these recommendations to produce a robust spatial distribution model for I. holocyclus. The resulting replicated models were fairly consistent in predicting suitability for I. holocyclus, as indicated by moderate range estimates (Fig. 2B). Further, the MOP analysis indicated satisfactory performance of the present-day model with extrapolation only in small areas outside the predicted suitable areas. These qualities, along with the model’s very low omission rate (0.044%) gives high confidence in the predicted suitable area for this species in Australia. It will be essential, however, to confirm the actual presence of I. holocyclus outside the traditionally known areas through acarological surveys to assess our findings.The present-day spatial distribution predicted in this study (Fig. 2A) indicates that the geographic areas suitable for I. holocyclus match the currently known distribution of this species along the eastern seaboard, but the suitability also extends through most of the coastal areas in the south, and up to the Kimbolton Peninsula in Western Australia in the north. Highly suitable areas are present around and south of Perth, extending towards Albany, Western Australia. Most areas in Tasmania are also highly suitable for this species. The current distribution in the Eastern Seaboard may be wider than the traditionally known extents in some areas compared to Roberts30. It is likely that I. holocyclus will succeed in establishing permanent populations if introduced into areas that are currently free of them along the southern and northern coasts, and along the southwestern coast of Western Australia and Tasmania. Appropriate prevention of tick movement including pet inspections and quarantine will be necessary to avoid introductions.Future potential distribution of I. holocyclus in year 2050 based on both low- and high-emissions scenarios indicate moderate increases in climatic suitability from the present-day prediction (Fig. 4A,B); but noticeably also moderate to low loss of climatically suitable areas in 2050. This loss could be at least partly attributed to potential future temperature and precipitation conditions exceeding suitable ranges for these ticks in these areas, limiting their ability to survive. Predicted loss of suitable areas in future can also be observed to be irregular, and in some areas, particularly along northern Queensland and in Northern Territory, enveloped between stretches of suitable areas. Our use of relatively coarse resolution data (1 km2) limits our ability to thoroughly interpret such phenomenon, but this is likely due to variations in the geography in these areas that respond differently to future climate, as well as the potential increase in ocean temperature and subsequent influences on areas along the coast that may render them unsuitable for this species. Despite the noticeable loss in climatically suitable areas, likely no net loss in area will accrue for this species by 2050.Teo et al.31 assessed present and future potential distribution for I. holocyclus using both CLIMEX32, 33 and a novel, as-yet unpublished “climatic-range” approach to determine the suitability on monthly intervals. CLIMEX allows users to specify different upper and lower thresholds for climatic parameters, some of which were derived for their study from laboratory evaluations of I. holocyclus34. The present-day distribution reported in that study resembles our results in identification of a relatively narrow area along the East Coast as suitable; however, much of the northern and northeastern areas along the coast, the coasts of South Australia and southwestern Australia, and Tasmania are reported unsuitable. Their future predictions (2050) of the species’ potential distribution were based on two GCMs (CSIRO MK3 and MIROC-H) climate models, were also markedly different from our predictions, anticipating rather dramatic distributional loss for the species. Such model transfers are challenging, with many factors potentially producing inconsistencies35. However, the two studies reflect two fundamentally different classes of ecological niche models; CLIMEX is deterministic, whose predictions are largely constrained by user supplied threshold values for model inputs of physiological tolerance limits of a species33, whereas Maxent is a machine-learning correlative approach, in which known occurrences of a species is used in conjunction with environmental layers to determine conditions that meet a species’ environmental requirements, and therefore the suitability of geographic spaces. Although the former (CLIMEX) approach is appealing conceptually, scaling environmental dimensions between the micro-scales of physiological measurements and the macro-scales of geography is well-known to present practical and conceptual challenges36.Different ixodid ticks employ different life-history strategies in response to adverse environmental conditions, including behavioral adaptations, active uptake of atmospheric moisture, restriction of water-loss, and tolerance towards extreme temperatures37. Precisely which of these mechanisms I. holocyclus utilizes, if any at all, for its survival during diverse temperature and humidity conditions is not clearly known, but it is likely to involve multiple mechanisms. In this sense, the threshold values used by Teo et al.31, based purely on laboratory observations may have been overly restrictive, leading to a conservative distributional estimate for this species. Further, because relationships between abiotic variables and species’ occurrences are fairly complex and highly dimensional, a physiological thresholding approach wherein values are set independently for different abiotic parameters may not capture species’ relationships with environments adequately. The correlative approaches employed in the present study are data-driven, and as such may capture more of this complexity, with fewer problems of scaling across orders of magnitude of space and time.In conclusion, ticks are poikilothermic ectoparasites, whose survival, reproduction and other biological functions are regulated by ambient climatic conditions. Although ixodid ticks are known to regulate their body temperatures by moving about their habitat (vegetation), attempts to model their spatial distribution has resulted in models largely based on climate variables. Nevertheless, other factors such as host availability play a significant role in tick distribution, which unfortunately cannot be readily included in correlative ecological niche models largely because such data are rarely available. These suitability predictions, in addition to being entirely based on large-scale climate, also do not reveal the highly likely heterogeneity in abundance or density in different geographic areas within the realized climatically suitable areas. For these reasons, the distribution maps produced in this study must be used with some caution, and perhaps as a guide to target sampling and not as a substitute for thorough acarological surveys. More

Data constructionWe construct an annual panel dataset from 2000 to 2012 of 2549 coastal communities within 102 countries. Population counts from 2000 to 2012 for each community were calculated from the Landscan population database27 and coastal communities were defined as the lowest level administration units with an ocean coastline of each country using the Global Administrative Areas Database v2.7. Using the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) global nighttime lights data, we examine trends in economic activity before and after a cyclone event. The growth rate in average annual luminosity from nighttime lights trends with economic growth and has been used as an effective proxy for local economic activity22,24,28,29,30,31,32.However, trends in nighttime luminosity should not be interpreted as a measure of economic growth. Instead, we focus on tracking the dynamic impacts of nighttime luminosity (e.g. deviations from trends) that indicates whether an exposed community’s economic activity recovers or suffers permanent damage. The average elevation of each coastal community was calculated using a void-filled Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data at 3 arc-seconds, or approximately 90 m2 at the equator33. The SRTM has the potential to result in an overestimation of elevation in heavily built environment areas or areas of dense high forest canopies compared against locations without such trees. However, during the timeframe of our analysis, the SRTM product was the most appropriate and available product.The mangrove coverage dataset was adapted from the Continuous Global Mangrove Forest Cover for the 21st Century (CGMFC-21) database for the years 2000 to 201212. The coastline length of each community, based on Global Self-Consistent, Hierarchical, High-Resolution Shoreline Database v2.3.5 full resolution data34, was used to normalize the area of mangroves offshore of each coastal community creating a measurement for the “width” of mangroves per meter of coastline.Tropical storm locations for all years were recreated from the International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS) Annual Tropical Cyclone Best Track Database35. Precise measurements of exposure, combined with high-resolution luminosity data, allows to distinguish the heterogeneous impacts of cyclones on exposed communities and the capacity for mangroves to shelter coastal economic activity at different elevations and for different mangrove widths. The intensity of exposure is measured by the distance of the cyclone’s “eye” from the exposed village’s nearest boundary.Tropical cyclone wind profile36, villages passing within 100 km of the cyclone’s eye were likely to experience maximum wind velocity and surface level pressure whereas those villages passing within more distant bands—i.e., 100–200 km and 200–300 km, were likely to experience similar surface level pressure but a non-linear reduction in wind velocity. Binning wind velocities in this way recognizes the highly non-linear relationship between wind velocity and on-the-ground damages from cyclone events37. We therefore expect the capacity for mangroves and elevation to shelter economic activity also to depend on this intensity of exposure.Our full sample encompasses nearly 400 million individuals in 102 countries and 2549 mangrove-holding communities (Table 1). Based on 2019 fiscal year World Bank categorizations, most of our sample resides in developing countries (85.1%) with 46.7% in lower-middle income (gross national income/per capita between $996 and $3895) and 35.3% in upper-middle income countries (gross national income/ per capita between $3896 and $12,056). We also find that most mangrove coverage in our sample exists within developing countries (88.7%) and overwhelmingly in upper-middle income countries (56.0%) in the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) and East Asian and Pacific (EAP) developing regions. While only 14.9% of our sample’s global population resides in LAC countries, these countries account for 39.8% of mangrove holdings in our sample whereas the 45.5% of the population residing in EAP countries only account for 30.3% of mangrove coverage.Empirical strategyWe use a distributed-lag autoregressive model to measure the initial and permanent effect of cyclone exposure on economic activity in coastal communities. The growth in economic activity for each coastal community is proxied by the difference in logs between years, (growth={ln}left(luminosit{y}_{t}right)-{ln}left(luminosit{y}_{t-1}right)). Our estimating equation is$$growt{h}_{i,j,t}=sumlimits_{L=0}^{n}{[beta }_{L} x {C}_{i,j,t-L}]+{gamma }_{j}+{delta }_{t}+eta {X}_{i,j,t}+{epsilon }_{i,j,t}$$
(1)

where the (beta) coefficients capture the marginal effects, across three bins of cyclone exposure, on the growth rate of luminosity for the (j{^{prime}}th) administrative unit, within country (i), and in time (t-L) where (t) is the observed year and L is the number of lags ranging from (0 ; to ;n). Here, ({C}_{i,j,t}) is a vector of cyclone exposures binned by the distance from the cyclone’s “eye” to the nearest boundary of the exposed community ( More

Chemicals and reagentsThe fluopyram standard was purchased from the Environmental Protection Monitoring Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture of China at a concentration of 1000 mg/L. Analytical grade acetonitrile, acetone, dichloromethane, and sodium chloride were purchased from the Guangzhou Chemical Reagent Factory. Chromatographic grade Methanol and n-hexane were available from Thermo Fisher Scientific. Purified water was prepared using a Milli-Q reverse osmosis system (Millipore, Milford, MA, USA). Strata Florisil (FL-PR) 500 mg/6 mL SPE manufactured by Strata™ (5.0 mL n-hexane–acetone (9:1, V/V) solution pre-rinsing cartridge).A standard solution of 1000 μg/mL fluopyram was diluted in n-hexane, and the matrix extract of the blank sample was obtained by the extraction method. The matrix standard solutions of 0.025, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.50 μg/mL were obtained by the step dilution. All prepared solutions were stored at temperature of 4 °C until further use.Soil sample collectionHainan latosol was collected from the Bailian banana experimental base in Chengmai (Hainan), Yunnan sandy soil was collected from Taoyuan banana experimental base in Longtou Street, Kunming (Yunnan) and Fujian plain alluvial soil was collected from the Zhangzhou banana experimental base (Fujian). 5–10 soil sampling points were randomly selected in each banana experimental base; the soil samples were collected from depths of 0–10 cm, and debris such as gravel, weeds, and plant roots were removed from each sample. The soil samples were obtained by the quarter method after mixing, dried, and stored after 20 mesh screening.Extraction and purification of flupyramSoil sample extraction was conducted as follows: in a 200 mL conical flask, 20.0 g of the drying soil sample and 40.0 mL acetonitrile was added. After shaking on a reciprocating shaker for 2 h, the mixture was filtered through filter paper. The filtrate was transferred to a stoppered measuring cylinder with 6.0 g NaCl. The stopper was inserted, and the mixture was vigorously shaken for 2 min. The mixture was left at 25 ± 2 °C for more than 30 min to separate the acetonitrile and aqueous solutions. Meanwhile, 10.0 mL of the supernatant were accurately transferred into a 100 mL round-bottom flask and concentrated by a rotatory evaporator at 40 °C to near dryness, which was dissolved in a 5.0 mL n-hexane–acetone (9:1, v/v) solution, vortexed, and mixed well for purification.Water sample extraction is shown below. A 20 mL water sample was transferred to a separatory funnel with 40.0 mL dichloromethane. After vigorously shaking it for 2 min and then letting it stand for 30 min, the lower layer solution was collected in a 100 mL round-bottom flask. The collected fluid was concentrated by a rotatory evaporator at 40 °C to near dryness and dissolved in 5.0 mL n-hexane–acetone (9:1, v/v) solution, vortexed, and mixed well for purification.Sample purification is described below. A 5.0 mL n-hexane–acetone (9:1, v/v) was used to preach the Strata Florisil (FL-PR) 500 mg/6 mL extraction column. When the leaching solvent level reached the surface of the column adsorption layer, the solution sample was immediately poured into the column be purified. Then, the purified solution was collected in a 100 mL round-bottom flask. A 5.0 mL n-hexane–acetone (9:1, v/v) solution was used to rinse the round-bottom flask residuum, after which the rinse solution was applied to elute the Florisil column. The rinsing and elution steps were repeated three times. The collected fluid was concentrated by a rotatory evaporator at 40 °C to near dryness and dissolved in 2.5 mL n-hexane for analysis.Instrumental conditionThe test was performed using the Theomer DSQII gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC–MS) with Xcalibur 2.0, software for data acquisition and analysis. A SLB-5MS analytical column (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) was used as chromatographic column. The injection volume was 1 μL without split injection, the carrier gas was helium (He, ≥ 99.999% purity), and the carrier gas flow rate was set to 1.0 mL/min. The protective gas was nitrogen (N2, ≥ 99.999% purity), and the injection port temperature was 250 °C. The chromatographic column temperature program was set as follows: the initial temperature at 80 °C was maintained for 1 min; then it was raised to 240 °C at a speed of 20 °C/min and maintained for 3 min; finally, the temperature was raised at a rate of 50 °C/min until 280 °C, where it was maintained for 7 min.The MS was operated in electron ionisation (EI) mode with an ionising energy of 70 eV. MS data were acquired in both full scan (m/z 50–500) mode for identification and selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode for quantification. The temperatures of the ion source and transfer line were 250 °C and 280 °C, respectively. The retention time of fluopyram was 10.59 min. The quantifier ions were m/z 223, and the qualifier ions were m/z 195 and m/z 173.Analytical method validationFirst, we addressed the linearity. The matrix standard of fluopyram was prepared in the range of 0.025–0.50 μg/mL and the determination was carried out, with the concentration of fluopyram matrix standard solution as the abscissa and the peak area obtained from the GC–MS as the ordinate. Linearity was calculated by plotting the relationship between the concentration and the peak area.The sensitivity analysis relied on the LOD and the limit of quantitation (LOQ). To evaluate the sensitivity of the method, they were obtained by adding the standard solution of fluopyram at the lowest concentration level in line with the requirements of the analytical method for blank samples. The LOD was the corresponding concentration when the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) was 3, and S/N = 10 corresponds to the LOQ.Accuracy and precision were estimated as well. To determine the reliability of the method, fluopyram standard solutions with different concentrations were added to the blank sample for the recovery experiment. Fluopyram standard solutions with concentrations of 0.008, 0.600, and 1.000 mg/kg were added to the blank samples. This procedure was repeated five times for each concentration. The samples were subjected to extract, purify and analysis under the method the same conditions as described above. The recovery was calculated for the accuracy of the method, and the RSD was calculated for the precision.Soil dissipation experimentIn a number of 100 mL clean and sterilized conical flasks with covers, 20.0 g of soil was added (net weight converted by water content); then, 0.1 mL 1000 μg/mL fluopyram standard solution was pipetted into the conical flasks. Ultrapure water was added. The water was controlled to occupy 60% of the total volume. The flasks were shaken on a constant temperature oscillator for 2 min to mix the fluopyram evenly. Then, they were placed in an artificial climate incubator and exposed to light at 25 ± 2 °C for 12 h per day. According to the different soil types, they were divided into three treatment groups: Hainan, Yunnan, and Fujian. Each treatment group had three parallels and three blanks. The detection intervals were 2 h, 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 42 and 60 day, while the detection of fluopyram was performed based on the interval according to the shown methods. The dissipation kinetics of fluopyram in banana planting soil conformed to the first-order kinetic equation Ct = C0e−kt, where Ct is a pesticide concentration (mg/kg) at different times (day), C0 is an initial concentration (mg/kg), and k is the dissipation rate constant. The half-life of fluopyram is determined using Eq. (1).$$T_{1/2} = , ln 2/k$$
(1)
Soil adsorption experimentUsing the oscillation balance method, 5.0 g of soil was put into the 250 mL conical flasks with cover, which contained 25 mL fluopyram aqueous solutions with mass concentrations of 0.02, 0.1, 0.5, 2.5 and 4.0 mg/L (containing 0.01 mol/L CaCl2), respectively. The soils were divided into three treatment groups: Hainan, Yunnan, and Fujian (based on the different soil types). The fluopyram aqueous solution and the blank soil aqueous solution (both containing 0.01 mol/L CaCl2) were used as controls. Each treatment group had three replicates. The conical flasks were then placed in a constant temperature oscillator at 25 ± 2 °C for 24 h to prepare the suspension. The suspension was transferred to a centrifuge tube for high-speed centrifugation, and 80% of the total volume of the supernatant was used for determination. The fluopyram in the supernatant was extracted and determined under the methods as described above, and the Freundlich equation model (see Eq. 2) was used to describe the adsorption law for fluopyram in soil.$${text{Freundlich: }}C_{s} = K_{f} times C_{e}^{1/n}$$
(2)
where Cs is adsorption content of pesticide in soil (mg/kg), Ce is concentration of the pesticide in aqueous solution at adsorption equilibrium (mg/L), Kf is the soil adsorption coefficient of the Freundlich model (L/kg), indicating the pesticide adsorption capacity of the soil and 1/n is a slope rate of the curve between Cs and Ce, reflecting the heterogeneity of the adsorbent surface.The relationship between the adsorption free energy of soil to pesticides (ΔG, kJ/mol) and the soil adsorption coefficient Koc is expressed using Eq. (3).$$Delta G , = – RTln K_{oc}$$
(3)
where Koc is the soil adsorption coefficient (Koc = Kf/OC × 100) expressed by organic carbon content (L/kg), OC is soil organic carbon content (%), R is the molar gas constant (J/K mol), and T is absolute temperature (K).Soil leaching experimentA plexiglass tube with an inner diameter of 5 cm and a length of 40 cm was used as a packed column. A layer of cotton, a 1 cm thick quartz sand layer, and a layer of filter paper were added at the bottom of the column. Dry soil (700–800.0 g) was weighed for filling, and the column was fully wetted with ultrapure water to prepare a 30 ± 0.2 cm high leaching soil column. 0.1 mL of 1000 μg/mL fluopyram solution was further added to 5.0 g of soil. After the solution completely volatilized, it was evenly spread on the top of the soil column, and a layer of filter paper and a layer of 1 cm thick quartz sand were added to the top of the soil. During the test, ultrapure water was used for washing the soil column for 10 h at a speed of 30 mL/h, and the leaching solution was collected. After washing, the soil column was removed and was cut into four sections of 1–5, 5–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm. The residues of fluopyram in the soil samples and leaching solutions were extracted and determined under the methods as described above. According to the three soil types, they were divided into Hainan, Yunnan and Fujian treatment groups, where each group received another parallel treatment. More

Degree of hydrolysisOrganic silages prepared from fat fish (FFS) and lean fish (LFS) had a characteristic tawny brown colour which was accompanied with a strong characteristic salty-fishy odour. At the end of 5 DoF, both FFS and LFS exhibited sluggish liquefaction which increased progressively concomitant with the DoF (Table S1). Liquefaction is an indicator of tissue hydrolysis due to the action of acid. During 35 DoF, the degree of hydrolysis (measured in terms of liquefaction volume) increased progressively with the DoF in both types of ensilages and was relatively higher in LFS compared to FFS on all sampled DoF (Table S1). In general, lipolysis supersedes the proteolysis in all major biochemical processes23. A relatively higher degree of hydrolysis recorded in LFS may be attributed to the presence of a greater proportion of light muscles compared to dark muscles. Relatively greater susceptibility of light muscles to hydrolysis compared to dark muscles might be due to lower lipid content in the former23.Irrespective of fish type, the measured pH values in both types of ensilages (FFS and LFS) were similar (data not shown) and the values showed a progressive increase from 1.0 ± 0.03 (0 DoF) to 6.0 ± 0.03 (35 DoF). Such an increasing trend in pH with the advancement in DoF could be attributable to gradual solubilisation of boney material with the advancement fermentation time24,25,26.Changes in principal biochemical constituentsDuring the 35 DoF, the concentrations of total protein (TP) in both FFS and LFS progressively increased with the DoF and showed significant differences with the advancement of DoF (p  phenylalanine (2.6 ± 0.033)  > serine (2.4 ± 0.033)  > aspartic acid (2.3 ± 0.033)  > alanine (2.1 ± 0.033)  > histidine (1.8 ± 0.033)  > valine (1.6 ± 0.033)  > methionine (1.5 ± 0.033)  > isoleucine (1.5 ± 0.033)  > threonine (1.4 ± 0.033)  > cysteine (0.946 ± 0.033).Figure 1Composition of total amino acids (mg/g) in two types of fish ensilages (FFS—fat fish silage; LFS—lean fish silage) during 35 days of fermentation (DoF). Data are mean ± SD. * p  glutamic acid (4.97 ± 0.033)  > arginine (4.5 ± 0.033)  > phenylalanine (3.38 ± 0.033)  > aspartic acid (2.92 ± 0.033)  > alanine (2.23 ± 0.033)  > methionine (2.19 ± 0.033)  > lysine (1.882 ± 0.033)  > serine (1.881 ± 0.033)  > tyrosine (1.410 ± 0.033)  > glycine (1.219 ± 0.033)  > threonine (0.953 ± 0.033)  > valine (0.945 ± 0.033)  > isoleucine (0.864 ± 0.033)  > histidine (0.417 ± 0.033).A comparative assessment of profiles of TAA in both FSS and LFS during all DoF revealed a similar pattern, albeit with obvious differences in the concentration of few amino acids (Fig. 1). It has been hypothesised that the occurrence of decarboxylation that follows transamination of amino acids as a consequence of increase in pH during fermentation is known to cause a decrement in the concentration of few amino acids, especially valine and isoleucine34. During the present study, the concentrations of histidine, valine, isoleucine, glycine and lysine were significantly higher (p  leucine (3.09 ± 0.003)  > glutamic acid (2.61 ± 0.003)  > alanine (1.83 ± 0.003)  > phenylalanine (1.79 ± 0.003)  > cysteine (1.67 ± 0.003)  > histidine (1.56 ± 0.003)  > aspartic acid (1.54 ± 0.003)  > serine (1.32 ± 0.003)  > lysine (1.16 ± 0.003)  > threonine (1.09 ± 0.003)  > valine (1.07 ± 0.003)  > isoleucine (1.06 ± 0.003) followed by methionine (0.93 ± 0.003)  > tyrosine (0.92 ± 0.003)  > tryptophan (0.72 ± 0.003)  > asparagine (0.57 ± 0.003)  > glutamine (0.15 ± 0.003).Figure 2Composition of free amino acids (mg/g) in two types of fish ensilages (FFS—fat fish silage; LFS—lean fish silage) during 35 days of fermentation (DoF). Data are mean ± SD. * p  More

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Our study uniquely points to differences among scientific disciplines in data availability as published along with the article and upon request from the authors. We demonstrate that in several disciplines such as forestry, materials for energy and catalysis and psychology, critical data are still unavailable for re-analysis or meta-analysis for more than half of the papers published in Nature and Science in the last decade. These overall figures roughly match those reported for other journals in various research fields8,11,13,22, but exceed the lowest reported values of around 10% available data13,23,24. Fortunately, data availability tends to improve, albeit slowly, in nearly all disciplines (Figs. 3, 7), which confirms recent implications from psychological and ecological journals13,31. Furthermore, the reverse trend we observed in microbiology corroborates the declining metagenomics sequence data availability22. Typically, such large DNA sequence data sets are used to publish tens of articles over many years by the teams producing these data; hence releasing both raw data and datasets may jeopardise their expectations of priority publishing. The weak discipline-specific differences among Nature and Science (Fig. 2) may be related to how certain subject editors implemented and enforced stringent data sharing policies.After rigorous attempts to contact the authors, data availability increased by one third on average across disciplines, with full and at least partial availability reaching 70% and 83%, respectively. These figures are in the top end of studies conducted thus far8,22 and indicate the relatively superior overall data availability in Science and Nature compared with other journals. However, the relative rates of data retrieval upon request, decline sharing data and ignoring the requests were on par with studies covering other journals and specific research fields10,12,25,26,28. Across 20 years, we identified the overall loss of data at an estimated rate of 3.5% and 5.9% for initially available data and data effectively available upon request, respectively. This rate of data decay is much less than 17% year−1 previously reported in plant and animal sciences based on a comparable approach24.While the majority of data are eventually available, it is alarming that less than a half of the data clearly stated to be available upon request could be effectively obtained from the authors. Although there may be objective reasons such as force majeure, these results suggest that many authors declaring data availability upon contacting may have abused the publishers’ or funders’ policy that allows statements of data availability upon request as the only means of data sharing. We find that this infringes research ethics and disables fair competition among research groups. Researchers hiding their own data may be in a power position compared with fair players in situations of big data analysis, when they can access all data (including their own), while others have more limited opportunities. Data sharing is also important for securing a possibility to re-analyse and re-interpret unexpected results9,32 and detect scientific misconduct25,33. More rigorous control of data release would prevent manuscripts with serious issues in sampling design or analytical procedures from being prepared, reviewed and eventually accepted for publication.Our study uniquely recorded the authors’ concerns and specific requests when negotiating data sharing. Concerns and hesitations about data sharing are understandable because of potential drawbacks and misunderstandings related to data interpretation and priority of publishing17,34 that may outweigh the benefits of recognition and passive participation in broader meta-studies. Nearly one quarter of researchers expressed various concerns or had specific requests depending on the discipline, especially about the specific objectives of our study. Previous studies with questionnaires about hypothetical data sharing unrelated to actual data sharing reveal that financial interests, priority of additional publishing and fear of challenging the interpretations after data re-analysis constitute the authors’ major concerns12,35,36. Another study indicated that two thirds of researchers sharing biomedical data expected to be invited as co-authors upon use of their data37 although this does not fulfil the authorship criteria6,38. At least partly related to these issues, the reasons for declining data sharing differed among disciplines: while social scientists usually referred to the loss of data, psychologists most commonly pointed out ethical/legal issues. Recently published data were, however, more commonly declined due to ethical/legal issues, which indicates rising concerns about data protection and potential misuse. Although we offered a possibility to share anonymised data sets, such trimmed data sets were never obtained from the authors, suggesting that ethical issues were not the only reason for data decline. Because research fields strongly differed in the frequency of no response to data requests, most unanswered requests can be considered declines that avoid official replies, which may harm the authors’ reputation.Because we did not sample randomly across journals, our interpretations are limited to the journals Nature and Science. Our study across disciplines did not account for the particular academic editor, which may have partly contributed to the differences among research fields and journals. Not all combinations of disciplines, journals and time periods received the intended 25 replicate articles because of the poor representation of certain research fields in the 2000–2009 period. This may have reduced our ability to detect statistically significant differences among the disciplines. We also obtained estimates for the final data availability for seven out of nine disciplines. Although we excluded the remaining two disciplines from comparisons of initial and final data availability, it may have slightly altered the overall estimates. The process of screening the potentially relevant articles chronologically backwards resulted in overrepresentation of more recent articles in certain relatively popular disciplines, which may have biased comparisons across disciplines. However, the paucity of residual year effect and year x discipline interaction in overall models and residual time effect in separate analyses within research fields indicate a minimal bias (Figure S1).We recorded the concerns and requests of authors that had issues with initial data sharing. Therefore, these responses may be relatively more sceptic than the opinions of the majority of the scientific community publishing in these journals. It is likely that the authors who did not respond may have concerns and reasons for declining similar to those who refused data sharing.Our experience shows that receiving data typically required long email exchanges with the authors, contacting other referred authors or sending a reminder. Obtaining data took on average 15 days, representing a substantial effort to both parties39. This could have been easily avoided by releasing data upon article acceptance. On the other hand, we received tips for analysis, caution against potential pitfalls and the authors’ informed consent upon contacting. According to our experience, more than two thirds of the authors need to be contacted for retrieving important metadata, variance estimates or specifying methods for meta-analyses40. Thus, contacting the authors may be commonly required to fill gaps in the data, but such extra specifications are easier to provide compared with searching and converting old datasets into a universally understandable format.Due to various concerns and tedious data re-formatting and uploading, the authors should be better motivated for data sharing41. Data formatting and releasing certainly benefits from clear instructions and support from funders, institutions and publishers. In certain cases, public recognition such as badges of open data for articles following the best data sharing practices and increasing numbers of citations may promote data release by an order of magnitude42. Citable data papers are certainly another way forward43,44, because these provide access to a well-organised dataset and add to the authors’ publication record. Encouraging enlisting published data sets with download and citation metrics in grant and job applications alongside with other bibliometric indicators should promote data sharing. Relating released data in publicly available research accounts such as ORCID, ResearcherID and Google Scholar would benefit both authors, other researchers and evaluators. To account for many authors’ fear of data theft17 and to prioritise the publishing options of data owners, setting a reasonable embargo period for third-party publishing may be needed in specific cases such as immediate data release following data generation45 and dissertations.All funders, research institutions, researchers, editors and publishers should collectively contribute to turn data sharing into a win-win situation for all parties and the scientific endeavour in general. Funding agencies may have a key role here due to the lack of conflicting interests and a possibility of exclusive allocation to depositing and publishing huge data files46. Funders have efficient enforcing mechanisms during reports periods, with an option to refuse extensions or approving forthcoming grant applications. We advocate that funders should include published data sets, if relevant, as an evaluation criterion besides other bibliometric information. Research institutions may follow the same principles when issuing institutional grants and employing research staff. Institutions should also insist their employees on following open data policies45.Academic publishers also have a major role in shaping data sharing policies. Although deposition and maintenance of data incur extra costs to commercial publishers, they should promote data deposition in their servers or public repositories. An option is to hire specific data editors for evaluating data availability in supplementary materials or online repositories and refusing final publishing before the data are fully available in a relevant format47. For efficient handling, clear instructions and a machine-readable data availability statement option (with a QR code or link to the data) should be provided. In non-open access journals, the data should be accessible free of charge or at reduced price to unsubscribed users. Creating specific data journals or ‘data paper’ formats may promote publishing and sharing data that would otherwise pile up in the drawer because of disappointing results or the lack of time for preparing a regular article. The leading scientometrics platforms Clarivate Analytics, Google Scholar and Scopus should index data journals equally with regular journals to motivate researchers publishing their data. There should be a possibility of article withdrawal by the publisher, if the data availability statements are incorrect or the data have been removed post-acceptance30. Much of the workload should stay on the editors who are paid by the supporting association, institution or publisher in most cases. The editors should grant the referees access to these data during the reviewing process48, requesting them a second opinion about data availability and reasons for declining to do so. Similar stringent data sharing policies are increasingly implemented by various journals26,30,47.In conclusion, data availability in top scientific journals differs strongly by discipline, but it is improving in most research fields. As our study exemplifies, the ‘data availability upon request’ model is insufficient to ensure access to datasets and other critical materials. Considering the overall data availability patterns, authors’ concerns and reasons for declining data sharing, we advocate that (a) data releasing costs ought to be covered by funders; (b) shared data and the associated bibliometric records should be included in the evaluation of job and grant applications; and (c) data sharing enforcement should be led by both funding agencies and academic publishers. More

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