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Orchard site selectionThe survey was conducted from 2018 to 2019 in the Circum-Bohai Bay region, which included Shandong, Hebei, and Liaoning provinces and Beijing, and the Loess Plateau region, which included Shanxi and Shaanxi provinces. Five typical production counties were selected in each province or city. Representative orchards were selected according to the production of the main varieties in each county (orchard area was greater than 1.0 ha; the pear trees were 15 to 25 years old; and the yield of orchards ranged from 40 to 60 t ha−1). A total of 225 orchards were investigated (Fig. 1), including 150 in the Circum-Bohai Bay region and 75 in the Loess Plateau region (Table 1).Fig. 1The locations of the 225 pear orchards.Full size imageTable 1 Numbers of pear orchard and main cultivated varieties investigated in Circum-Bohai Bay and Loess Plateau.Full size tableSample collection and pretreatmentSoil and leaf samples were collected at the stage in which the growth of new shoots ceased, from July 1 to July 1510. Eleven sampling sites were determined in each orchard according to an “S” shape sampling method (Fig. 2), and soil samples from the 0–20 cm, 20–40 cm and 40–60 cm layers were collected. The soil samples of the same soil layer at each sampling site were mixed into one sample. Then, the soil samples were air-dried, ground and sifted with a nylon sieve for determination of nutrient concentrations.Fig. 2The “S” shape sampling method. The red dots are the sampling locations.Full size imageTen to fifteen pear trees in each orchard of the same size and vigour and 5 to 10 mature leaves from the middle of a long shoot from the periphery of each tree were selected for leaf sampling11. Then, all the leaves from the same orchard were mixed into one leaf sample. The leaves were washed with tap water containing a detergent, with deionized water, with 0.01 M hydrochloric acid and then with deionized water again and then dried at 100 °C for 30 min and at 70 °C to a constant weight. Then, the leaf samples were crushed into a powder and sifted with a nylon sieve for nutrient determination.Fruit samples were collected at the ripening stage. Pear trees from which leaf samples were collected from each orchard were selected for fruit sample collection. Three to five peripheral fruits of the same size were collected from each tree, and fruit samples from the same orchard were mixed into one sample. The fruits were washed with tap water containing a detergent, with deionized water, with 0.01 M hydrochloric acid and then with deionized water again, cut into slices and then dried at 100 °C for 30 min and at 70 °C to a constant weight. Then, the fruit samples were crushed into a powder and sifted with a nylon sieve for nutrient determination.Sample determinationVarious indicators of soil and plant samples were determined according to the method of Cui et al.12 and Bao13.Soil pH determinationA potentiometric method was used to measure soil pH. Carbon dioxide-free water was added to soil that had been passed through a 2 mm sieve at a water-soil ratio of 2.5:1. The soil solution was stirred for 1 min and left undisturbed for 30 min. Each soil sample was measured more than three times with a pH meter (FE20K PLUS PH, Mettler-Toledo, Switzerland), and the difference in the parallel determination results was less than 0.2 pH units. The electrode was washed with deionized water and dried with filter paper after each sample measurement. A calibration solution was used to calibrate the electrode between measurements after every 10 soil samples.Soil organic matter determinationSoil organic matter was measured according to the Schollenberger method using chromic acid redox titration. Five millilitres of a 0.8 M 1/6 K2Cr2O7 solution was added to a test tube with approximately 0.5000 g of soil that had been passed through a 0.25 mm sieve. The mixture was then added to 5 mL concentrated sulfuric acid and shaken gently to disperse the soil. The tube was placed in a phosphoric acid bath, heated to 170 °C and boiled for 5 min. To condense the water vapour that escaped during the heating process, a small funnel was placed on the top of the test tube. The substances in the test tube and funnel were transferred to a conical flask after cooling. Then, the solution was added to 1,10-phenanthroline hydrate and titrated with 0.2 M FeSO4 until it turned maroon. A blank experiment was performed when each batch of samples was measured. The soil organic matter content was calculated according to the following formula:$${rm{omega }}left({rm{OM}}right)=frac{left({rm{V}}-{rm{V}}0right)times {rm{c}}times 3times 1.724times {rm{f}}}{{rm{m}}}$$
(1)
ω(OM): soil organic matter content; c: standard FeSO4 solution concentration; V: volume of the standard FeSO4 used in titration; V0: volume of standard FeSO4 used in titrating control sample; 3: molar mass of a quarter of carbon; 1.724: the conversion factor from organic carbon to organic matter; f: oxidation correction coefficient (the value was 1.1); m: mass of oven-dried soil sample.Soil total N determinationTotal N was determined by the semitrace Kjeldahl method. Approximately 1.0000 g of air-dried soil that had been passed through a 0.25 mm sieve was added to a digestion tube. Meanwhile, the soil moisture content was measured to calculate the mass of the oven-dried soil. Two grams of accelerator and 5 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid were added to the tube. The tube was then covered with a small funnel, and the sample was digested at 360 °C for 15–20 min. The mixture was digested for 1 h until the colour changed from brown to greyish green or greyish white. Two digested soilless samples were used as controls. After the digestion tube cooled, it was placed in a distiller, and a small amount of deionized water was added. Five millilitres of a 2% boric acid indicator was added to a 150 mL conical flask, and the flask was placed at the end of the condenser tube. Then, the digestion solution was distilled until the distillate volume was approximately 75 mL. The distillate was titrated with 0.01 M standard hydrochloric acid to a purplish red colour endpoint. The soil total N concentration was calculated according to the following formula:$${rm{omega }}({rm{N}})=frac{({rm{V}}-{rm{V}}0)times {rm{c}}times 14}{{rm{m}}}$$
(2)
ω(N): soil total N concentration; c: standard acid concentration; V: volume of the standard acid used in titration; V0: volume of standard acid used in titrating control sample; 14: molar mass of N; m: mass of oven-dried soil sample.Soil alkaline hydrolysable N determinationApproximately 2.00 g of air-dried soil that have been passed through a 2 mm sieve was placed in the outer chamber of a diffuser. The diffuser was gently rotated to evenly distribute the soil in the outer chamber. Two millilitres of H3BO3 indicator was placed in the inner chamber of the diffusion dish. The edge of the frosted glass surface of the diffuser was coated with alkaline glycerin and covered with frosted glass. The diffuser was covered tightly and secured with rubber bands after 10.00 mL of 1 M NaOH was injected into the diffuser through a hole in the frosted glass. The diffuser was placed in a 40 °C incubator for alkaline hydrolysis diffusion for 24 h. Then, the mixture was titrated with 0.01 M standard hydrochloric acid until it turned purplish red. A blank test was performed at the same time as the samples. The soil alkaline hydrolysable N concentration was calculated according to the following formula:$${rm{omega }}({rm{N}})=frac{({rm{V}}-{rm{V}}0)times {rm{c}}times 14}{{rm{m}}}$$
(3)
ω(N): soil alkaline hydrolysable N concentration; c: standard acid solution concentration; V: volume of the standard acid used in titration; V0: volume of standard acid used in titrating control sample; 14: molar mass of N; m: mass of air-dried soil sample.Soil available P determinationApproximately 2.50 g of air-dried soil that had been passed through a 2 mm sieve was placed in a plastic bottle and 50 mL of 0.5 M NaHCO3 was added. After the bottle was shaken for 30 min, the mixture was immediately filtered with phosphorus-free filter paper. Ten millilitres of the filtrate was accurately measured into a conical flask, and 5.00 mL of Mo-Sb-Vc colour developer and 10 mL of deionized water were added. The absorbance of the mixture was measured at approximately 700 nm after 30 min using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (UV1900PC, AuCy Instrument, Shanghai, China). Finally, the P concentration was calculated according to a standard curve prepared with solutions of different P concentrations. A blank test was performed at the same time that the samples were determined.Soil available K determinationApproximately 5.00 g of air-dried soil that had been passed through a 2 mm sieve was placed in a plastic bottle, and 50 mL of 1.0 M NH4OAc was added. After the sample was shaken for 30 min, the mixture was immediately filtered with dry filter paper. The concentration of K in the filtrate was determined directly by a flame photometer (LM12-FP6430, Haifuda, China) according to a standard curve prepared with solutions of different K concentrations. A blank test was performed at the same time that the samples were determined.Leaf and fruit N determinationApproximately 0.3000 g of plant powder that had been passed through a 0.5 mm sieve was placed into a digestion tube and 5 mL concentrated sulfuric acid was added. Then, the digestion tube was placed onto a digestion stove at 360 °C after two doses of 2 mL H2O2, and the sample was digested until the mixture turned brown. After the tube cooled, 2 mL H2O2 was added, and the digestion was continued for 5 min. This process was repeated until the mixture turned clear. The mixture was diluted to 100 mL in a volumetric flask for testing after it cooled. Then, 5 to 10 mL of the liquid to be tested was accurately measured into a distiller for distillation. The distillation and titration processes were the same as those used for ammonium in the Soil total N determination section. A blank test was performed at the same time as sample measurement. The leaf or fruit N concentration was calculated according to the following formula:$${rm{omega }}({rm{N}})=frac{({rm{V}}-{rm{V}}0)times {rm{c}}times 14times {rm{V}}1}{{rm{m}}times {rm{V}}2}$$
(4)
ω(N): total N concentration; c: standard acid concentration; V: volume of the standard acid used in titration; V0: volume of standard acid used in titrating control sample; 14: molar mass of N; m: mass of oven-dried sample; V1: volume of the digestion solution after constant volume; V2: measured volume of digestion solution after constant volume.Leaf and fruit P, K, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B determinationApproximately 0.5000 g of plant powder that had been passed through a 0.5 mm sieve was placed in a digestion tube and a 10 mL mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hypochlorous acid (4:1) was added. After the sample was left undisturbed for more than 4 h, it was placed onto a digestion stove and heated to 150 °C so that NO2 could volatilize slowly. Then, the temperature was appropriately increased to a temperature not higher than 250 °C until the digestive solution was transparent and approximately 2 mL remained. The solution was transferred into a volumetric flask after cooling and adjusted to a constant volume of 50 mL. The solution was then filtered, and the concentration of each element in the solution was determined by a plasma emission spectrometer (ICP-OES, OPTIMA 3300 DV, 75 Perkin-Elmer, USA). A blank test was performed at the same time as sample measurement. The leaf or fruit P, K, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, and B concentrations were calculated according to the following formula:$${rm{omega }}({rm{P}},{rm{K}},{rm{Ca}},{rm{Fe}},{rm{Mn}},{rm{Cu}},{rm{Zn}},{rm{B}})=frac{rho ({rm{P}},{rm{K}},{rm{Ca}},{rm{Fe}},{rm{Mn}},{rm{Cu}},{rm{Zn}},{rm{B}})times {rm{V}}times {rm{f}}}{{rm{m}}}$$
(5)
ω(P, K, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B): P, K, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B concentration in leaf or fruit; ρ(P, K, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B): the concentration of P, K, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn or B in the liquid to be measured; V: volume of the liquid to be measured after constant volume; f: dilution ratio of the liquid to be measured; m: mass of oven-dried sample. More