Ecology

Experimental design and crop establishmentA microcosm experiment was conducted at Yamagata University, Tsuruoka City, Japan, from May to October 2019, with six growth containers (36 cm in height, 30 cm in width, 60 cm in length) to simulate paddy fields of 0.18 m2 in area (see Supplementary Fig. S1). The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design with three replications of two treatments: (1) rice cropping under CSI and (2) conventional rice cultivation fertilized with mineral fertilisers and irrigated with tap water (Control).Each container was filled with 32 kg of a paddy soil collected from an experimental field in the university farm and transplanted with four hills of 30-day-old seedlings (Oryza sativa L., cv. Bekoaoba) on 27th May 2019. The experiment was performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations for research involving plants. The experimental soil was classified as loamy soil (air-dried, 20% moisture) with the following basic properties: pH (H2O) of 5.78, electrical conductivity (EC) of 0.09 dS m−1, SOM of 4.9%, and a total N, P, and K of 1.46, 0.88, and 3.17 g kg−1, respectively. The TWW used in the CSI system was collected from a local WWTP and monitored weekly for its basic properties (Table 2) following our previous studies6,7. In brief, pH, EC, and DO of water samples were measured on-site using pH/conductivity and DO portable meters (D-54 and OM-51, HORIBA, Ltd., Kyoto, Japan), whereas TOC and total N were analyzed using a TOC analyzer (TOC-VCSV, Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto, Japan) attached to a total N measuring unit (TNM-1, Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto, Japan). After a standard acid-digestion of water samples6, the concentration of P was measured using a portable colorimeter (DR/890, HATCH, USA), and the concentration of K was measured using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS ELAN DRCII, PerkinElmer Japan Co., Ltd.). The tap water used in this study was also tested on a regular basis and found to be stable throughout the crop season, with the following properties: pH of 7.8, EC of 0.095 dS m−1, DO, TOC, N, and P of 6.85, 0.49, 0.06, and 0.07 mg L−1, respectively, with K being below the ICP-MS detection limit ( More

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