Philippa Kaur

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College of Marine Science and Biological Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, ChinaChao Shi, Hao-hong Cai, Ri-xin Jiang & Shuo WangKey Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, ChinaChao Shi & Hua PengDepartment of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USAMichael S. EngelShanghai World Expo Museum, Shanghai, ChinaJi YuanKey Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaMing BaiDepartment of Entomology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, ChinaDing YangCollege of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, ChinaChun-lin LongCollege of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, ChinaZun-tian ZhaoSouth China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, ChinaDian-xiang ZhangState Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaXian-chun ZhangState Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Palaeoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, ChinaYong-dong WangSchool of Environment, Earth, and Ecosystem Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UKRobert A. SpicerCAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, ChinaRobert A. SpicerS.W., M.S.E., D.-X.Z., X.-C.Z., H.P., Y.-D.W. and R.A.S. conceived the idea and drafted the initial manuscript, with contributions from all other authors. All authors jointly revised the paper. More

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Exp 1: chemo-tactile conditioning of the proboscis extension response (PER)Bee foragers may assess the quality of floral nectars through chemo-sensilla located on their antennae47. In this first experiment, we asked whether nectar-relevant concentrations of GABA, β-alanine, taurine, citrulline and ornithine can be detected by bees through their antennae. To this aim, we used a chemo-tactile differential conditioning of PER protocol48 in which different groups of bees were trained to discriminate one of the five NPAAs from water. Briefly, tethered bees experienced five pairings of a neutral stimulus (either NPAA-laced water or water) (CS+) with a 30% sucrose solution reinforcement (US) and five pairings (either water or NPAA-laced water) (CS−) with a saturated NaCl solution (US) used as punishment. The results showed that bees increased their response to both the rewarded (CS+) and the punished (CS−) stimuli over the ten conditioning trials (GLMM, trial: GABA: n = 76, χ2 = 65.75, df = 1, p  More

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