Ecology

After the successful protection of Himalayan areas on the border of China and Nepal, we propose that the two nations should create the world’s highest international peace park by combining the Qomolangma and Sagarmatha national parks. This would align with United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 17, to achieve sustainable development through international cooperation (see go.nature.com/3ixmini).
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests. More

Climate change drove evolution, biogeography, and demographyPhylogenetic results (Fig. 1 and Supplementary Fig. 2) confirm previous findings, recovering Aptenodytes (king and emperor penguins) as the sister clade to all other crown penguins, with brush-tailed (Pygoscelis) penguins in turn sister to two clades uniting the banded (Spheniscus) and little (Eudyptula) penguins and the yellow-eyed (Megadyptes) and crested (Eudyptes) penguins6,7,9. Biogeographical reconstructions (Fig. 1, Supplementary Figs. 3–4 and Supplementary Data 1) support a Zealandian origin for penguins6,7. Stem penguins radiated extensively in Zealandia before dispersing to South America and Antarctica multiple times, following the eastward-flowing direction of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) (Fig. 1). Crown penguins most likely arose from descendant lineages in South America, before dispersing back to Zealandia at least three times. Interestingly, at least two such dispersals occurred before the inferred onset of the ACC system, suggesting that early stem penguins were not dependent on currents to disperse over long distances. A second pulse of speciation coincides with the onset of the ACC, though understanding whether this pattern is real or an artifact of fossil sampling requires more collecting from early Eocene localities. We infer an age of ~14 Ma for the origin of crown penguins, which is more recent than the ~24 Ma age recovered in genomic analyses, not including fossil taxa7 (Supplementary Fig. 2b) and coincides with the onset of global cooling during the middle Miocene climate transition4,10 (Supplementary Fig. 3a). This young age suggests that expansion of Antarctic ice sheets and the onset of dispersal vectors such as the Benguela Current11 during the middle to late Miocene facilitated crown penguin dispersal and speciation, as hinted at by fossil evidence12.Incongruences between species trees and gene trees were identified, e.g., alternate topologies occurred at high frequencies ( >10%) for several internal branches (Fig. 1c; Supplementary Fig. 5). These patterns indicate that gene tree discordance may be caused by incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) or introgression events. By quantifying ILS and introgression via branch lengths from over 10,000 gene trees, we found that the rapid speciation within crown penguins was accompanied by >5% ILS content within the ancestors of Spheniscus, Eudyptula, Eudyptes, and several subgroups within Eudyptes (Fig. 2a). Our dated tree provides a temporal framework for this rapid radiation: the four extant Spheniscus taxa are all inferred to have split from one another within the last ~3 Ma, and likewise the nine extant Eudyptes taxa likely split from one another in that same time (Fig. 1b). Many closely related penguin species/lineages are known to hybridize in the wild (see supplementary methods). Consistent with this, multiple analyses suggest that introgression also contributes to species tree—gene tree incongruence (Supplementary Figs. 6–9 and Supplementary Data 2; also see Supplementary Methods for further details). This could explain the most notable conflict in previous phylogenetic results, which showed inconsistency over whether Aptenodytes alone7 or Aptenodytes and Pygoscelis together4,5 represent the sister clade to all other extant penguins. Introgression was detected between the ancestor of Aptenodytes and the ancestor of other extant penguins, and is inferred to have occurred when the range of these ancestors overlapped in South America (Fig. 2a and Supplementary Data 2). Introgression ( >9%) was also detected between Eudyptula novaehollandiae and Eudyptula minor, and several introgression events were especially pervasive in Eudyptes (Fig. 2a and Supplementary Fig. 6).Fig. 2: Incomplete lineage sorting, introgression events, and demographic history among penguins.a Model of incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) and introgression events estimated from QuIBL and hybrid pairwise sequentially Markovian coalescent (hPSMC) results. hPSMC was only run for 20 species pairs (see b). Numbers on branches represent the proportion (%) of ILS (orange branches) or introgression (blue lines, blue dashed lines, and blue dotted lines) detected by QuIBL. Proportions 50 km; see Supplementary Data 117), while taxa that decreased towards the end of the LGP (e.g., S. humboldti, S. demersus, M. a. antipodes and likely M. a. richdalei) tend to be residential, and forage inshore; see Supplementary Data 1. Taxa that disperse farther may have overcome local impacts of global climate cooling during the LGP (e.g., changes in sea-ice extent, prey abundance and terrestrial glaciation, however see18) largely by relocating to lower latitudes (e.g.,14), whereas locally-restricted taxa may have been more prone to sudden population collapses.Penguins have the slowest evolutionary rates among birdsThe integrated evolutionary speed hypothesis (IESH) proposes that temperature, water availability, population size, and spatial heterogeneity influence evolutionary rate19. Life history traits also impact the evolutionary rate, but such relationships remain incompletely understood in birds20. Penguins are long-lived, large-bodied, and produce few offspring, thus providing an ideal case study in how life history may impact evolutionary rate. We tested the IESH using three proxies for evolutionary rate: substitution rate, P and K2P distances between lineages and their ancestors (Supplementary Fig. 12 and Supplementary Data 3). We found that penguins and their sister group (Procellariiformes) had the lowest evolutionary rates of the 17 avian orders sampled by21 (Fig. 3a, Supplementary Fig. 13, and Supplementary Data 3). Because other aquatic orders also show slow rates (e.g., the aquatic Anseriformes show a significantly slower rate than their terrestrial sister group Galliformes), we hypothesize that the rate in penguins represents the culmination of a gradual slowdown associated with increasingly aquatic ecology. Intriguingly, we detected a trend toward decreasing rate over the first ~10 Ma of crown penguin evolution, followed by a marked uptick ~2 Ma, which suggests the onset of glacial-interglacial cycles contributed to a recent increase in evolutionary rates in penguins (Fig. 3b).Fig. 3: Evolutionary rates in birds.a Evolutionary rate in avian orders based on a ~19 Mbp alignment of highly conserved genome regions. Sphenisciformes and Procellariiformes have the lowest evolutionary rate among modern bird orders (One-sided Wilcoxon Rank sum test, P values  0.1)). Numbers at the tips represent the sample size in each group. Numbers at nodes represent the divergence times (Ma) between each order and its sister taxon and red dots within the boxplots indicate average values. We did not attempt to estimate the evolutionary rates for orders containing less than three sampled species (gray font; Musophagiformes, Mesitornithiformes, and Struthioniformes). Boxplots show the median with hinges at the 25th and 75th percentile and whiskers extending 1.5 times the interquartile range. Some bird images were downloaded from phylopic.org and were licensed under the Creative Commons (CC0) 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. b Evolutionary rates inferred for extant penguin lineages at internal nodes from the maximum clade credibility tree, calculated using a 500 Mbp genome alignment. Gray shadows represent the 95% credible intervals. c–e Correlations between c, body mass and generation time (P value  More

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It’s surprisingly hard to catch a sloth. Although they’re slow — very, very slow — if you climb a tree to catch one, it will move along to the next tree. Once you climb the new tree, it will move back again.My team does this regularly, as we conduct the Sloth Backpack Project, a data-logging initiative here in Costa Rica, where many sloths coexist with people. In 2017, I wanted to do more than research, so I started the Sloth Conservation Foundation.In this photograph, I’m fitting a backpack to a brown-throated three-fingered sloth (Bradypus variegatus) that we named Baguette, after a nearby bakery. The backpack will collect data on her location, movement and living patterns.We had found Baguette about 20 minutes earlier, balancing atop construction fencing as she attempted to escape two pit bulls. Baguette wasn’t all that grateful. She’s a feisty old girl. She’s old: she’s missing fingers, and she’s got scars on her face.I adore sloths, but I also envy them. They’re a powerful symbol of the slowness that our society needs more of. They don’t let anything stress them out unless it’s really important — they just get on with life.The backpack project will help us to understand sloth behaviour, so we can better protect them as the urban environment grows. This year, I received a €50,000 (US$52,220) Future For Nature award, which we will use to train a dog to detect sloth faeces. We can use faeces as a proxy for sloth numbers and locations in the region, and ultimately work out the boundaries of the species, how fast populations are declining and which conservation measures work.I’m happy I’ve moved away from academia — I can put all my energy into conservation as opposed to bashing out papers. That’s what I feel ecology should focus on — how we can use what we’re learning to give back to other species. More

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